Human history

For a navigational list, see List of time periods.

Human history is the record of humankind from prehistory to the present. Modern humans evolved in Africa around 300,000 years ago and initially lived as hunter-gatherers. They migrated out of Africa during the Last Ice Age and had populated most of the Earth by the end of the Ice Age 12,000 years ago. Soon afterward, the Neolithic Revolution in West Asia brought the first systematic husbandry of plants and animals, and saw many humans transition from a nomadic life to a sedentary existence as farmers in permanent settlements. The growing complexity of human societies necessitated systems of accounting and writing.

These developments paved the way for the emergence of early civilizations in Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Indus Valley, and China, marking the beginning of the Ancient period in 3500 BCE. These civilizations supported the establishment of regional empires and acted as a fertile ground for the advent of transformative philosophical and religious ideas, initially Hinduism during the late Bronze Age, and later Buddhism, Confucianism, Greek philosophy, Jainism, Judaism, Taoism, and Zoroastrianism during the Axial Age. The following post-classical period, from about 500 to 1500 CE, witnessed the rise of Islam and the continued spread and consolidation of Christianity while civilization expanded to new parts of the world and trade between societies increased. These developments were accompanied by the rise and decline of major empires, such as the Byzantine Empire, the Islamic Caliphates, the Mongol Empire, and various Chinese dynasties. This period's invention of gunpowder and of the printing press greatly affected subsequent history.

During the early modern period, spanning from approximately 1500 to 1800 CE, European powers explored and colonized regions worldwide, intensifying cultural and economic exchange. This era saw substantial intellectual, cultural, and technological advances in Europe driven by the Renaissance, the Scientific Revolution, and the Enlightenment. By the 18th century, the accumulation of knowledge and technology had reached a critical mass that brought about the Industrial Revolution, substantial to the Great Divergence, and began the modern period starting around 1800 CE. The rapid growth in productive power further increased international trade and colonization, linking the different civilizations in the process of globalization, and cemented European dominance throughout the 19th century. Over the last quarter-millennium, despite the devastating effects of two world wars, there has been a great acceleration in the rates of growth of many domains, including human population, agriculture, industry, commerce, scientific knowledge, technology, communications, military capabilities, and environmental degradation.

The study of human history relies on insights from academic disciplines including history, archaeology, anthropology, linguistics, and genetics. To provide an accessible overview, researchers divide human history by a variety of periodizations.

Prehistory

Main articles: Prehistory and Timeline of prehistory

"Lucy", the first Australopithecus afarensis skeleton found, was only 1.06 m (3 ft 6 in) tall.

Human evolution

Main article: Human evolution

Humans evolved in Africa from great apes through the lineage of hominins, which arose 7–5 million years ago. The ability to walk on two legs emerged after the split from chimpanzees in early hominins, such as Australopithecus, as an adaptation possibly associated with a shift from forest to savanna habitats. Hominins began to use rudimentary stone tools c. 3.3 million years ago, marking the advent of the Paleolithic era.

The genus Homo evolved from Australopithecus. The earliest record of Homo is the 2.8 million-year-old specimen LD 350-1 from Ethiopia, and the earliest named species is Homo habilis which evolved by 2.3 million years ago. The most important difference between Homo habilis and Australopithecus was a 50% increase in brain size. H. erectus evolved by 2 million years ago and was the first hominin species to leave Africa and disperse across Eurasia. Perhaps as early as 1.5 million years ago, but certainly by 250,000 years ago, hominins began to use fire for heat and cooking.

Beginning about 500,000 years ago, Homo diversified into many new species of archaic humans such as the Neanderthals in Europe, the Denisovans in Siberia, and the diminutive H. floresiensis in Indonesia. Human evolution was not a simple linear or branched progression but involved interbreeding between related species. Genomic research has shown that hybridization between substantially diverged lineages was common in human evolution. DNA evidence suggests that several genes of Neanderthal origin are present among all non-sub-Saharan African populations. Neanderthals and other hominins, such as Denisovans, may have contributed up to 6% of their genome to present-day non-sub-Saharan African humans.

Early humans

Main articles: Early modern human and Early human migrations

Homo sapiens emerged in Africa around 300,000 years ago from the species Homo heidelbergensis. Humans continued to develop over the succeeding millennia, and by 100,000 years ago, were using jewelry and ocher to adorn the body. By 50,000 years ago, they buried their dead, used projectile weapons, and engaged in seafaring. One of the most important changes (the date of which is unknown) was the development of syntactic language, which dramatically improved the human ability to communicate. Signs of early artistic expression can be found in the form of cave paintings and sculptures made from ivory, stone, and bone, implying a form of spirituality generally interpreted as animism or shamanism. The earliest known musical instruments besides the human voice are bone flutes from the Swabian Jura in Germany, dated around 40,000 years old. Paleolithic humans lived as hunter-gatherers and were generally nomadic.

Peopling of the world, the Southern Dispersal scenario

The migration of anatomically modern humans out of Africa took place in multiple waves beginning 194,000–177,000 years ago. The dominant view among scholars is that the early waves of migration died out and all modern non-Africans are descended from a single group that left Africa 70,000–50,000 years ago. H. sapiens proceeded to colonize all the continents and larger islands, arriving in Australia 65,000 years ago, Europe 45,000 years ago, and the Americas 21,000 years ago. These migrations occurred during the most recent Ice Age, when various temperate regions of today were inhospitable. Nevertheless, by the end of the Ice Age some 12,000 years ago, humans had colonized nearly all ice-free parts of the globe. Human expansion coincided with both the Quaternary extinction event and the Neanderthal extinction. These extinctions were probably caused by climate change, human activity, or a combination of the two.

Rise of agriculture

Main article: Neolithic

Beginning around 10,000 BCE, the Neolithic Revolution marked the development of agriculture, which fundamentally changed the human lifestyle. Agriculture began independently in different parts of the globe, and included a diverse range of taxa, in at least 11 separate centers of origin. Cereal crop cultivation and animal domestication had occurred in Mesopotamia by at least 8500 BCE in the form of wheat, barley, sheep, and goats. The Yangtze River Valley in China domesticated rice around 8000–7000 BCE; the Yellow River Valley may have cultivated millet by 7000 BCE. Pigs were the most important domesticated animal in early China. People in Africa's Sahara cultivated sorghum and several other crops between 8000 and 5000 BCE, while other agricultural centers arose in the Ethiopian Highlands and the West African rainforests. In the Indus River Valley, crops were cultivated by 7000 BCE and cattle were domesticated by 6500 BCE. In the Americas, squash was cultivated by at least 8500 BCE in South America, and domesticated arrowroot appeared in Central America by 7800 BCE. Potatoes were first cultivated in the Andes of South America, where the llama was also domesticated. It is likely that women played a central role in plant domestication throughout these developments.

A pillar at Göbekli Tepe

Various explanations of the causes of the Neolithic Revolution have been proposed. Some theories identify population growth as the main factor, leading people to seek out new food sources. Others see population growth not as the cause but as the effect of the associated improvements in food supply. Further suggested factors include climate change, resource scarcity, and ideology. The transition to agriculture created food surpluses that could support people not directly engaged in food production, permitting far denser populations and the creation of the first cities and states.

Cities were centers of trade, manufacturing, and political power. They developed mutually beneficial relationships with their surrounding countrysides, receiving agricultural products and providing manufactured goods and varying degrees of political control in return. Early proto-cities appeared at Çatalhöyük and Jericho, possibly as early as the 10th and 9th millennia BCE. Pastoral societies based on nomadic animal herding also developed, mostly in dry areas unsuited for plant cultivation such as the Eurasian Steppe or the African Sahel. Conflict between nomadic herders and sedentary agriculturalists was frequent and became a recurring theme in world history. Neolithic societies usually worshiped ancestors, sacred places, or anthropomorphic deities. The vast complex of Göbekli Tepe in Turkey, dated 9500–8000 BCE, is an example of a Neolithic religious or civic site.

Metalworking was first used in the creation of copper tools and ornaments around 6400 BCE. Gold and silver soon followed, primarily for use in ornaments. The first signs of bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, date to around 4500 BCE, but the alloy did not become widely used until the third millennium BCE.

Ancient history

Main articles: Ancient history and Timeline of ancient history

Cradles of civilization

Main articles: Cradle of civilization, Bronze Age, and Iron Age

Great Pyramids of Giza, Egypt

The Bronze Age saw the development of cities and civilizations. Early civilizations arose close to rivers, first in Mesopotamia (3300 BCE) with the Tigris and Euphrates, followed by the Egyptian civilization along the Nile River (3200 BCE), the Norte Chico civilization in coastal Peru (3100 BCE), the Indus Valley civilization in Pakistan and northwestern India (2500 BCE), and the Chinese civilization along the Yangtze and Yellow Rivers (2200 BCE).

These societies developed a number of shared characteristics, including a central government, a complex economy and social structure, and systems for keeping records. These cultures variously invented the wheel, mathematics, bronze-working, sailing boats, the potter's wheel, woven cloth, construction of monumental buildings, and writing. Polytheistic religions developed, centered on temples where priests and priestesses performed sacrificial rites.

Cuneiform inscription, eastern Turkey

Writing facilitated the administration of cities, the expression of ideas, and the preservation of information. It may have independently developed in at least four ancient civilizations: Mesopotamia (3300 BCE), Egypt (around 3250 BCE), China (1200 BCE), and lowland Mesoamerica (by 650 BCE). The earliest system of writing was the Mesopotamian cuneiform script, which began as a system of pictographs, whose pictorial representations eventually became simplified and more abstract. Other influential early writing systems include Egyptian hieroglyphs and the Indus script. In China, writing was first used during the Shang dynasty (1766–1045 BCE).

Transport was facilitated by waterways, including rivers and seas, which fostered the projection of military power and the exchange of goods, ideas, and inventions. The Bronze Age also saw new land technologies, such as horse-based cavalry and chariots, that allowed armies to move faster. Trade became increasingly important as urban societies exchanged manufactured goods for raw materials from distant lands, creating vast commercial networks and the beginnings of archaic globalization. Bronze production in Southwest Asia, for example, required the import of tin from as far away as England.

The growth of cities was often followed by the establishment of states and empires. In Egypt, the initial division into Upper and Lower Egypt was followed by the unification of the whole valley around 3100 BCE. Around 2600 BCE, the Indus Valley civilization built major cities at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro. Mesopotamian history was characterized by frequent wars between city-states, leading to shifts in hegemony from one city to another. In the 25th–21st centuries BCE, the empires of Akkad and the Neo-Sumerians arose in this area. In Crete, the Minoan civilization emerged by 2000 BCE and is regarded as the first civilization in Europe.

Over the following millennia, civilizations developed across the world. By 1600 BCE, Mycenaean Greece began to develop. It flourished until the Late Bronze Age collapse that affected many Mediterranean civilizations between 1300 and 1000 BCE. The foundations of many cultural aspects in India were laid in the Vedic period (1750–600 BCE), including the emergence of Hinduism. From around 550 BCE, many independent kingdoms and republics known as the Mahajanapadas were established across the subcontinent.

Olmec colossal head, now at the Museo de Antropología de Xalapa

Speakers of the Bantu languages began expanding across Central, Eastern, and Southern Africa as early as 3000 BCE until 1000 CE. Their expansion and encounters with other groups resulted in the displacement of the Pygmy peoples and the Khoisan, and in the spread of mixed farming and ironworking throughout sub-Saharan Africa, laying the foundations for later states.

The Lapita culture emerged in the Bismarck Archipelago near New Guinea around 1500 BCE and colonized many uninhabited islands of Remote Oceania, reaching as far as Samoa by 700 BCE.

In the Americas, the Norte Chico culture emerged in Peru around 3100 BCE. The Norte Chico built public monumental architecture at the city of Caral, dated 2627–1977 BCE. The later Chavín polity is sometimes described as the first Andean state, centered on the religious site at Chavín de Huantar. Other important Andean cultures include the Moche, whose ceramics depict many aspects of daily life, and the Nazca, who created animal-shaped designs in the desert called Nazca lines. The Olmecs of Mesoamerica developed by about 1200 BCE and are known for the colossal stone heads that they carved from basalt. They also devised the Mesoamerican calendar that was used by later cultures such as the Maya and Teotihuacan. Societies in North America were primarily egalitarian hunter-gatherers, supplementing their diet with the plants of the Eastern Agricultural Complex. They built earthworks such as Watson Brake (4000 BCE) and Poverty Point (3600 BCE), both in Louisiana.

Axial Age

Main article: Axial Age

Standing Buddha from Gandhara, 2nd century CE

From 800 to 200 BCE, the Axial Age saw the emergence of transformative philosophical and religious ideas that developed in many different places mostly independently of each other. Chinese Confucianism, Indian Buddhism and Jainism, and Jewish monotheism all arose during this period. Persian Zoroastrianism began earlier, perhaps around 1000 BCE, but was institutionalized by the Achaemenid Empire during the Axial Age. New philosophies took hold in Greece during the 5th century BCE, epitomized by thinkers such as Plato and Aristotle. The first Olympic Games were held in 776 BCE, marking a period known as "classical antiquity". In 508 BCE, the world's first democratic system of government was instituted in Athens.

Axial Age ideas shaped subsequent intellectual and religious history. Confucianism was one of the three schools of thought that came to dominate Chinese thinking, along with Taoism and Legalism. The Confucian tradition, which would become particularly influential, looked for political morality not to the force of law but to the power and example of tradition. Confucianism would later spread to Korea and Japan. Buddhism reached China in about the 1st century CE and spread widely, with 30,000 Buddhist temples in northern China alone by the 7th century CE. Buddhism became the main religion in much of South, Southeast, and East Asia. The Greek philosophical tradition diffused throughout the Mediterranean world and as far as India, starting in the 4th century BCE after the conquests of Alexander the Great of Macedon. Both Christianity and Islam developed from the beliefs of Judaism.

Regional empires

The millennium from 500 BCE to 500 CE saw a series of empires of unprecedented size develop. Well-trained professional armies, unifying ideologies, and advanced bureaucracies created the possibility for emperors to rule over large domains whose populations could attain numbers upwards of tens of millions of subjects. International trade also expanded, most notably the massive trade routes in the Mediterranean Sea, the maritime trade web in the Indian Ocean, and the Silk Road.

Carving of Persian and Median soldiers, Persepolis, Achaemenid Empire, 5th century BCE

The kingdom of the Medes helped to destroy the Assyrian Empire in tandem with the nomadic Scythians and the Babylonians. Nineveh, the capital of Assyria, was sacked by the Medes in 612 BCE. The Median Empire gave way to successive Iranian states, including the Achaemenid (550–330 BCE), Parthian (247 BCE–224 CE), and Sasanian Empires (224–651 CE).

Two major empires began in modern-day Greece. In the late 5th century BCE, several Greek city states checked the Achaemenid Persian advance in Europe through the Greco-Persian Wars. These wars were followed by the Golden Age of Athens, the seminal period of ancient Greece that laid many of the foundations of Western civilization, including the first theatrical performances. The wars led to the creation of the Delian League, founded in 477 BCE, and eventually the Athenian Empire (454–404 BCE), which was defeated by a Spartan-led coalition during the Peloponnesian War. Philip of Macedon unified the Greek city-states into the Hellenic League and his son Alexander the Great (356–323 BCE) founded an empire extending from present-day Greece to India. The empire divided into several successor states shortly after his death, resulting in the founding of many cities and the spread of Greek culture throughout conquered regions, a process referred to as Hellenization. The Hellenistic period lasted from the death of Alexander in 323 BCE to 31 BCE when Ptolemaic Egypt fell to Rome.

In Europe, the Roman Republic was founded in the 6th century BCE and began expanding its territory in the 3rd century BCE. Priorly, the Carthaginian Empire had dominated the Mediterranean, however lost three successive wars to the Romans. The Republic became an empire and by the time of Augustus (63 BCE–14 CE), it had established dominion over most of the Mediterranean Sea. The empire continued to grow and reached its peak under Trajan (53–117 CE), controlling much of the land from England to Mesopotamia. The two centuries that followed are known as the Pax Romana, a period of unprecedented peace, prosperity, and political stability in most of Europe. Christianity was legalized by Constantine I in 313 CE after three centuries of imperial persecution. It became the sole official religion of the empire in 380 CE while the emperor Theodosius outlawed pagan religions in 391–392 CE.

In South Asia, Chandragupta Maurya founded the Maurya Empire (320–185 BCE), which flourished under Ashoka the Great. From the 4th to 6th centuries CE, the Gupta Empire oversaw the period referred to as ancient India's golden age. The resulting stability helped usher in a flourishing period for Hindu and Buddhist culture in the 4th and 5th centuries, as well as major advances in science and mathematics. In South India, three prominent Dravidian kingdoms emerged: the Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas.

Pillar erected by Ashoka, a Mauryan Emperor in India

In China, Qin Shi Huang put an end to the chaotic Warring States period by uniting all of China under the Qin dynasty (221–206 BCE). Qin Shi Huang was an adherent of the Legalist school of thought and he displaced the hereditary aristocracy by creating an efficient system of administration staffed by officials appointed according to merit. The harshness of the Qin dynasty led to rebellions and the dynasty's fall. It was followed by the Han dynasty (202 BCE–220 CE), which combined the Legalist bureaucratic system with Confucian ideals. The Han dynasty was comparable in power and influence to the Roman Empire that lay at the other end of the Silk Road. As economic prosperity fueled their military expansion, the Han conquered parts of Mongolia, Central Asia, Manchuria, Korea, and northern Vietnam. As with other empires during the classical period, Han China advanced significantly in the areas of government, education, science, and technology. The Han invented the compass, one of China's Four Great Inventions.

Obelisk of Axum, Ethiopia

In Africa, the Kingdom of Kush prospered through its interactions with both Egypt and sub-Saharan Africa. It ruled Egypt as the Twenty-fifth Dynasty from 712 to 650 BCE, then continued as an agricultural and trading state based in the city of Meroë until the fourth century CE. The Kingdom of Aksum, centered in present-day Ethiopia, established itself by the 1st century CE as a major trading empire, dominating its neighbors in South Arabia and Kush and controlling the Red Sea trade. It minted its own currency and carved enormous monolithic stelae to mark its emperors' graves.

Successful regional empires were also established in the Americas, arising from cultures established as early as 2500 BCE. In Mesoamerica, vast pre-Columbian societies were built, the most notable being the Zapotec civilization (700 BCE–1521 CE), and the Maya civilization, which reached its highest state of development during the Mesoamerican classic period (c. 250–900 CE), but continued throughout the post-classic period. The great Maya city-states slowly rose in number and prominence, and Maya culture spread throughout the Yucatán and surrounding areas. The Maya developed a writing system and used the concept of zero in their mathematics. West of the Maya area, in central Mexico, the city of Teotihuacan prospered due to its control of the obsidian trade. Its power peaked around 450 CE, when its 125,000–150,000 inhabitants made it one of the world's largest cities.

Technology developed sporadically in the ancient world. There were periods of rapid technological progress, such as the Greco-Roman era in the Mediterranean region. Greek science, technology, and mathematics are generally considered to have reached their peak during the Hellenistic period, typified by devices such as the Antikythera mechanism. There were also periods of technological decay, such as the Roman Empire's decline and fall and the ensuing early medieval period. Two of the most important innovations were paper (China, 1st and 2nd centuries CE) and the stirrup (India, 2nd century BCE and Central Asia, 1st century CE), both of which diffused widely throughout the world. The Chinese learned to make silk and built massive engineering projects such as the Great Wall of China and the Grand Canal. The Romans were also accomplished builders, inventing concrete, perfecting the use of arches in construction, and creating aqueducts to transport water over long distances to urban centers.

Most ancient societies practiced slavery, which was particularly prevalent in Athens and Rome, where slaves made up a large proportion of the population and were foundational to the economy. Patriarchy was also common, with men controlling more political and economic power than women.

Declines, falls, and resurgence

Maya observatory, Chichen Itza, Mexico

The ancient empires faced common problems associated with maintaining huge armies and supporting a central bureaucracy. In Rome and Han China, the state began to decline, and barbarian pressure on the frontiers hastened internal dissolution. The Han dynasty fell into civil war in 220 CE, beginning the Three Kingdoms period, while its Roman counterpart became increasingly decentralized and divided about the same time in what is known as the Crisis of the Third Century. From the Eurasian Steppe, horse-based nomads dominated a large part of the continent. The development of the stirrup and the use of horse archers made the nomads a constant threat to sedentary civilizations.

In the 4th century CE, the Roman Empire split into western and eastern regions, with usually separate emperors. The Western Roman Empire fell in 476 CE to German influence under Odoacer. The Eastern Roman Empire, known as the Byzantine Empire, was more long-lasting. In China, dynasties rose and fell, but, in sharp contrast to the Mediterranean-European world, political unity was always eventually restored. After the fall of the Eastern Han dynasty and the demise of the Three Kingdoms, nomadic tribes from the north began to invade, causing many Chinese people to flee southward.

Post-classical history

Main articles: Post-classical history and Timeline of post-classical history

The post-classical period, dated roughly from 500 to 1500 CE, was characterized by the rise and spread of major religions while civilization expanded to new parts of the world and trade between societies intensified. From the 10th to 13th centuries, the Medieval Warm Period in the northern hemisphere aided agriculture and led to population growth in parts of Europe and Asia. It was followed by the Little Ice Age, which, along with the plagues of the 14th century, put downward pressure on the population of Eurasia. Major inventions of the period were gunpowder, guns, and printing, all of which originated in China.

Hagia Sophia, Istanbul – a symbol of Byzantine civilization

The post-classical period encompasses the early Muslim conquests, the Islamic Golden Age, and the commencement and expansion of the Arab slave trade, followed by the Mongol invasions and the founding of the Ottoman Empire. South Asia had a series of middle kingdoms, followed by the establishment of Islamic empires in India.

In West Africa, the Mali and Songhai Empires rose. On the southeast coast of Africa, Arabic ports were established where gold, spices, and other commodities were traded. This allowed Africa to join the Southeast Asia trading system, bringing it contact with Asia; this resulted in the Swahili culture.

China experienced the relatively successive Sui, Tang, Song, Yuan, and early Ming dynasties. Middle Eastern trade routes along the Indian Ocean, and the Silk Road through the Gobi Desert, provided limited economic and cultural contact between Asian and European civilizations. During the same period, civilizations in the Americas, such as the Mississippians, Aztecs, Maya, and Inca reached their zenith.

West and Central Asia

Main articles: History of the Middle East, History of North Africa, and History of Central Asia

Ajloun Castle, Jordan

Before the advent of Islam in the 7th century, the Middle East was dominated by the Byzantine and Sasanian Empires, which frequently fought each other for control of several disputed regions. This was also a cultural battle, with Byzantine Christian culture competing against Persian Zoroastrian traditions. The birth of Islam created a new contender that quickly surpassed both of these empires.

Muhammad, the founder of Islam, initiated the early Muslim conquests in the 7th century. He established a new unified polity in Arabia that expanded rapidly under the Rashidun Caliphate and the Umayyad Caliphate, culminating in the establishment of Muslim rule on three continents (Asia, Africa, and Europe) by 750 CE. The subsequent Abbasid Caliphate oversaw the Islamic Golden Age, an era of learning, science, and invention during which philosophy, art, and literature flourished. Scholars preserved and synthesized knowledge and skills of ancient Greece and Persia the manufacture of paper from China and the decimal positional numbering system from India. At the same time, they made significant original contributions in various fields, such as Al-Khwarizmi's development of algebra and Avicenna's comprehensive philosophical system. Islamic civilization expanded both by conquest and based on its merchant economy. Merchants brought goods and their Islamic faith to China, India, Southeast Asia, and Africa.

Arab domination of the Middle East ended in the mid-11th century with the arrival of the Seljuk Turks, migrating south from the Turkic homelands. The Seljuks were challenged by Europe during the Crusades, a series of religious wars aimed at rolling back Muslim territory and regaining control of the Holy Land. The Crusades were ultimately unsuccessful and served more to weaken the Byzantine Empire, especially with the sack of Constantinople in 1204. In the early 13th century, a new wave of invaders, the Mongols, swept through the region but were eventually eclipsed by the Turks and the founding of the Ottoman Empire in modern-day Turkey around 1299.

Great Mosque of Kairouan, Tunisia, founded 670 CE

Steppe nomads from Central Asia continued to threaten sedentary societies in the post-classical era, but they also faced incursions from the Arabs and Chinese. China expanded into Central Asia during the Sui dynasty (581–618). The Chinese were confronted by Turkic nomads, who were becoming the most dominant ethnic group in the region. Originally the relationship was largely cooperative but in 630, the Tang dynasty began an offensive against the Turks by capturing areas of the Ordos Desert. In the 8th century, Islam began to penetrate the region and soon became the sole faith of most of the population, though Buddhism remained strong in the east. From the 9th to 13th centuries, Central Asia was divided among several powerful states, including the Samanid, Seljuk, and Khwarazmian Empires. These states were succeeded by the Mongols in the 13th century. In 1370, Timur, a Turkic leader in the Mongol military tradition, conquered most of the region and founded the Timurid Empire. Timur's large empire collapsed soon after his death, but his descendants retained control of a core area in Central Asia and Iran. They oversaw the Timurid Renaissance of art and architecture.

Europe

Main articles: History of Europe and Middle Ages

Notre-Dame de Paris, France

Since at least the 4th century, Christianity has played a prominent role in shaping the culture, values, and institutions of Western civilization, primarily through Catholicism and later also Protestantism. Europe during the Early Middle Ages was characterized by depopulation, deurbanization, and barbarian invasions, all of which had begun in late antiquity. The barbarian invaders formed their own new kingdoms in the remains of the Western Roman Empire. Although there were substantial changes in society and political structures, most of the new kingdoms incorporated existing Roman institutions. Christianity expanded in Western Europe, and monasteries were founded. In the 7th and 8th centuries, the Franks under the Carolingian dynasty established an empire covering much of Western Europe; it lasted until the 9th century, when it succumbed to pressure from new invaders—the Vikings, Magyars, and Arabs. During the Carolingian era, churches developed a form of musical notation called neume which became the basis for the modern notation system. Kievan Rus' expanded from its capital in Kiev to become the largest state in Europe by the 10th century. In 988, Vladimir the Great adopted Orthodox Christianity as the state religion.

13th-century French historiated initial with the three classes of medieval society: those who prayed (the clergy), those who fought (the knights), and those who worked (the peasantry)

During the High Middle Ages, which began after 1000, the population of Europe increased as technological and agricultural innovations allowed trade to flourish and crop yields to increase. The establishment of the feudal system affected the structure of medieval society. It included manorialism, the organization of peasants into villages that owed rents and labor service to nobles, and vassalage, a political structure whereby knights and lower-status nobles owed military service to their overlords in return for the right to rents from lands and manors. Kingdoms became more centralized after the decentralizing effects of the breakup of the Carolingian Empire. In 1054, the Great Schism between the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches led to the prominent cultural differences between Western and Eastern Europe. The Crusades were a series of religious wars waged by Christians to wrest control of the Holy Land from the Muslims and succeeded for long enough to establish some Crusader states in the Levant. Italian merchants imported slaves to work in households or in sugar processing. Intellectual life was marked by scholasticism and the founding of universities, while the building of Gothic cathedrals and churches was one of the outstanding artistic achievements of the age. The Middle Ages witnessed the first sustained urbanization of Northern and Western Europe and lasted until the beginning of the early modern period in the 16th century.

The Mongols reached Europe in 1236 and conquered Kievan Rus', along with briefly invading Poland and Hungary. Lithuania cooperated with the Mongols but remained independent and in the late 14th century formed a personal union with Poland. The Late Middle Ages were marked by difficulties and calamities. Famine, plague, and war devastated the population of Western Europe. The Black Death alone killed approximately 75 to 200 million people between 1347 and 1350. It was one of the deadliest pandemics in human history. Starting in Asia, the disease reached the Mediterranean and Western Europe during the late 1340s, and killed tens of millions of Europeans in six years; between a quarter and a third of the population perished.

Africa

Main article: History of Africa

Africa was home to many different civilizations.

In the 7th century North Africa saw the extinguishment of Byzantine Africa and the Berber kingdoms in the Early Muslim conquests. From the 10th century the Arabian empire's African territory was consumed by the Fatimid Caliphate centred on Egypt, who were supplanted by the Ayyubids in the 12th century, and them later by the Mamluks in the 13th century. In the Maghreb and Western Sahara, the Almoravids dominated from the 11th century, until it was subsumed by the Almohad Caliphate in the 12th century. The Almohad's collapse gave rise to the Marinids in Morocco, the Zayyanids in Algeria, and the Hafsids in Tunisia. In Nubia the Kingdom of Kush was succeeded by the Christian kingdoms of Makuria, Alodia, and Nobatia. In the 7th century Makuria conquered Nobatia to become the dominant power in the region and resisted Muslim expansion. They later entered a severe decline following civil war and Arab migrations to the Sudan and had disintegrated by the 15th century, giving rise to the Funj Sultanate.

One of the eleven Rock-hewn Churches of Lalibela constructed during the Zagwe dynasty in Ethiopia

In the Horn of Africa, Islam spread among the Somalis, while the Kingdom of Aksum declined from the 7th century following Muslim dominance over the Red Sea trade, and collapsed in the 10th century. The Zagwe dynasty emerged in the 12th century and contested hegemony with the Sultanate of Shewa and the powerful Kingdom of Damot. In the 13th century the Zagwe were overthrown by the Solomonic dynasty of the Ethiopian Empire, while Shewa gave way to the Walashma dynasty of the Sultanate of Ifat. Ethiopia emerged victorious against Ifat and occupied the Muslim states. The Ajuran Sultanate rose on the Horn's east coast to dominate the Indian Ocean trade. Ifat was succeeded by the Adal Sultanate who reconquered much of the Muslim lands.

In the West African Sahel region the Ghana Empire formed from the 3rd century, while from the 7th century the Gao Empire ruled to its east. Almoravid capture of royal Aoudaghost led to Ghana’s conversion to Islam in the 11th century, and climatic changes led to Ghana's conquest by its vassal Sosso in the 13th century. Sosso was quickly overthrown by the Mali Empire who conquered Gao and dominated the trans-Saharan trade. The Mossi Kingdoms were established to its south. To the east, the Kanem–Bornu Empire ruled from the 6th century, and projected power over the Hausa Kingdoms. The 15th century saw the crumbling of the Mali Empire, with the dominant power in the region becoming the Songhai Empire centred on Gao.

Benin Bronze head from Nigeria

In the forest regions of West Africa, various kingdoms and empires flourished, such as the Yoruba empires of Ife and Oyo, the Igbo Kingdom of Nri, the Edo Kingdom of Benin (famous for its art), the Dagomba Kingdom of Dagbon, and the Akan kingdom of Bonoman. They came into contact with the Portuguese in the 15th century which saw the start of the Atlantic slave trade.

In the Congo Basin by the 13th century there were three main confederations of states: the Seven Kingdoms, Mpemba, and one led by Vungu. In the 14th century the Kingdom of Kongo emerged and dominated the region. Further east, the Luba Empire was founded in the Upemba Depression in the 15th century. In the northern Great Lakes, the Empire of Kitara rose around the 11th century, famed for its total lack of written record. It collapsed in the 15th century following Luo migrations to the region.

On the Swahili coast the Swahili city-states thrived off of the Indian Ocean trade and gradually Islamised, giving rise to the Kilwa Sultanate from the 10th century. Madagascar was settled by Austronesian peoples between the 5th and 7th centuries, as societies organised at the behest of hasina. In the Zambezi Basin, the Kingdom of Mapungubwe was founded in the 11th century. It was followed by the Kingdom of Zimbabwe in the 13th century, and the Mutapa Empire in the 15th century.

South Asia

Main article: History of India

Chennakesava Temple, Belur, India

After the fall of the Gupta Empire in 550 CE, North India was divided into a complex and fluid network of smaller kingdoms. Early Muslim incursions began in the northwest in 711 CE, when the Arab Umayyad Caliphate conquered much of present-day Pakistan. The Arab military advance was largely halted at that point, but Islam still spread in India, largely due to the influence of Arab merchants along the western coast. The 9th century saw the Tripartite Struggle for control of North India between the Pratihara, Pala, and Rashtrakuta Empires.

Post-classical dynasties in South India included those of the Chalukyas, Hoysalas, and Cholas. Literature, architecture, sculpture, and painting flourished under the patronage of these kings. Some of the other important states that emerged in South India during this time included the Bahmani Sultanate and the Vijayanagara Empire.

Northeast Asia

Main articles: History of East Asia and History of Siberia

After a period of relative disunity, China was reunified by the Sui dynasty in 589. Under the succeeding Tang dynasty (618–907), China entered a golden age during which political stability and economic prosperity were accompanied by literary and artistic accomplishment, like the poetry of Li Bai and Du Fu. The Sui and Tang instituted the long-lasting imperial examination system, under which administrative positions were open only to those who passed an arduous test on Confucian thought and the Chinese classics. China competed with Tibet (618–842) for control of areas in Inner Asia. However, the Tang dynasty eventually splintered. After half a century of turmoil, the Song dynasty reunified much of China. Pressure from nomadic empires to the north became increasingly urgent. By 1127, northern China had been lost to the Jurchens in the Jin–Song Wars, and the Mongols conquered all of China in 1279. After about a century of Mongol Yuan dynasty rule, the ethnic Chinese reasserted control with the founding of the Ming dynasty in 1368.

Battle during the 1281 Mongol invasion of Japan

In Japan, the imperial lineage was established during the 3rd century CE, and a centralized state developed during the Yamato period (c. 300–710). Buddhism was introduced, and there was an emphasis on the adoption of elements of Chinese culture and Confucianism. The Nara period (710–794) was characterized by the appearance of a nascent literary culture, as well as the development of Buddhist-inspired artwork and architecture. The Heian period (794–1185) saw the peak of imperial power, followed by the rise of militarized clans and the samurai. It was during the Heian period that Murasaki Shikibu penned The Tale of Genji, sometimes considered the world's first novel. From 1185 to 1868, Japan was dominated by powerful regional lords (daimyos) and the military rule of warlords (shoguns) such as the Ashikaga and Tokugawa shogunates. The emperor remained but did not wield significant influence. Meanwhile, the power of merchants grew. An influential art style known as ukiyo-e arose during the Tokugawa years, consisting of woodblock prints which originally depicted famous courtesans.

Post-classical Korea saw the end of the Three Kingdoms era, in which the kingdoms of Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla had competed for hegemony. This period ended when Silla conquered Baekje in 660 and Goguryeo in 668, marking the beginning of the Northern and Southern States period, with Unified Silla in the south and Balhae, a successor state to Goguryeo, in the north. In 892 CE, this arrangement reverted to the Later Three Kingdoms, with Goguryeo emerging as dominant, unifying the entire peninsula by 936. The founding Goryeo dynasty ruled until 1392, succeeded by the Joseon dynasty, which ruled for approximately 500 years.

In Mongolia, Genghis Khan united various Mongol and Turkic tribes under one banner in 1206. The Mongol Empire expanded to comprise all of China and Central Asia, as well as large parts of Russia and the Middle East, to become the largest contiguous empire in history. After Möngke Khan died in 1259, the Mongol Empire was divided into four successor states: the Yuan Dynasty in China, the Chagatai Khanate in Central Asia, the Golden Horde in Eastern Europe and Russia, and the Ilkhanate in Iran.

Southeast Asia

Main article: History of Southeast Asia

Angkor Wat temple complex, Cambodia, early 12th century

The Southeast Asian polity of Funan, which had originated in the 2nd century CE, went into decline in the 6th century as Chinese trade routes shifted away from its ports. It was replaced by the Khmer Empire in 802 CE. The Khmers' capital city, Angkor, was the most extensive city in the world before the industrial age and contained Angkor Wat, the world's largest religious monument. The Sukhothai (mid-13th century CE) and Ayutthaya Kingdoms (1351 CE) were major powers of the Thais, who were influenced by the Khmers.

Starting in the 9th century, the Pagan Kingdom rose to prominence in modern Myanmar. Its collapse brought about political fragmentation that ended with the rise of the Toungoo Empire in the 16th century. Other notable kingdoms of the period include Srivijaya and Lavo (both coming into prominence in the 7th century), Champa and Hariphunchai (both about 750), Đại Việt (968), Lan Na (13th century), Majapahit (1293), Lan Xang (1353), and Ava (1365). Hinduism and Buddhism had been spreading in Southeast Asia since the 1st century CE when, beginning in the 13th century, Islam arrived and made its way to regions such as present-day Indonesia. This period also saw the emergence of the Malay states, including Brunei and Malacca. In the Philippines, several polities were formed such as Tondo, Cebu, and Butuan.

Oceania

Main article: History of Oceania

Moai, Easter Island

The Polynesians, descendants of the Lapita peoples, colonized vast reaches of Remote Oceania beginning around 1000 CE. Their voyages resulted in the colonization of hundreds of islands including the Marquesas, Hawaii, Rapa Nui (Easter Island), and New Zealand.

The Tuʻi Tonga Empire was founded in the 10th century CE and expanded between 1250 and 1500. Tongan culture, language, and hegemony spread widely throughout eastern Melanesia, Micronesia, and central Polynesia during this period. They influenced east 'Uvea, Rotuma, Futuna, Samoa, and Niue, as well as specific islands and parts of Micronesia, Vanuatu, and New Caledonia. In Northern Australia, there is evidence that Aboriginal Australians regularly traded with Makassan trepangers from Indonesia before the arrival of Europeans. In Aboriginal societies, leadership was based on achievement while the social structure of Polynesian societies was characterized by hereditary chiefdoms.

Americas

Main article: History of the Americas

Machu Picchu, Inca Empire, Peru

In North America, this period saw the rise of the Mississippian culture in the modern-day United States c. 950 CE, marked by the extensive 11th-century urban complex at Cahokia. The Ancestral Puebloans and their predecessors (9th–13th centuries) built extensive permanent settlements, including stone structures that remained the largest buildings in North America until the 19th century.

In Mesoamerica, the Teotihuacan civilization fell and the classic Maya collapse occurred. The Aztec Empire came to dominate much of Mesoamerica in the 14th and 15th centuries.

In South America, the 15th century saw the rise of the Inca. The Inca Empire, with its capital at Cusco, spanned the entire Andes, making it the most extensive pre-Columbian civilization. The Inca were prosperous and advanced, known for an excellent road system and elegant stonework.

Early modern period

Main articles: Early modern period and Timelines of modern history

The early modern period is the era following the European Middle Ages until 1789 or 1800. A common break with the medieval period is placed between 1450 and 1500 which includes a number of significant events: the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire, the spread of printing and European voyages of discovery to America and along the African coast. The nature of warfare evolved as the size and organization of military forces on land and sea increased, alongside the wider propagation of gunpowder. The early modern period is significant for the start of proto-globalization, increaslingly centralized bureaucratic states and early forms of capitalism. European powers also began colonizing large parts of the world through maritime empires: first the Portuguese and Spanish Empires, then the French, English, and Dutch Empires. Historians still debate the causes of Europe's rise, which is known as the Great Divergence.

Japanese depiction of a Portuguese carrack. European maritime innovations led to proto-globalization.

Capitalist economies emerged, initially in the northern Italian republics and some Asian port cities. European states practiced mercantilism by implementing one-sided trade policies designed to benefit the mother country at the expense of its colonies. Starting at the end of the 15th century, the Portuguese established trading posts across Africa, Asia, and Brazil, for commodities like gold and spices while also practicing slavery. In the 17th century, private chartered companies were established, such as the English East India Company in 1600 – often described as the first multinational corporation – and the Dutch East India Company in 1602. Meanwhile, in much of the European sphere, serfdom declined and eventually disappeared while the power of the Catholic Church waned.

The Age of Discovery was the first period in which the Old World engaged in substantial cultural, material, and biological exchange with the New World. It began in the late 15th century, when Portugal and Castile sent the first exploratory voyages to the Americas, where Christopher Columbus first arrived in 1492. Global integration continued as European colonization of the Americas initiated the Columbian exchange: the exchange of plants, animals, foods, human populations (including slaves), communicable diseases, and culture between the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. It was one of history's most important global events, involving ecology and agriculture. New crops brought from the Americas by 16th-century European seafarers substantially contributed to world population growth.

West and Central Asia

The Ottoman Empire quickly came to dominate the Middle East after conquering Constantinople in 1453, which marked the end of the Byzantine Empire. Persia came under the rule of the Safavids in 1501, succeeded by the Afshars in 1736, the Zands in 1751, and the Qajars in 1794. The Safavids established Shia Islam as Persia's official religion, thus giving Persia a separate identity from its Sunni neighbors. Along with the Mughals in India, the Ottomans and Safavids are known as the gunpowder empires because of their early adoption of firearms. At the end of the 18th century, the Russian Empire began its conquest of the Caucasus. The Uzbeks replaced the Timurids as the preeminent power in Central Asia.

Europe

Main article: Early modern Europe

See also: Renaissance, Reformation, and Age of Enlightenment

Wittenberg, birthplace of Protestantism

The early modern period in Europe was an era of intense intellectual ferment. The Renaissance – the "rebirth" of classical culture, beginning in Italy in the 14th century and extending into the 16th – comprised the rediscovery of the classical world's cultural, scientific, and technological achievements, and the economic and social rise of Europe. This period is also celebrated for its artistic and literary attainments. Petrarch's poetry, Giovanni Boccaccio's Decameron, and the paintings and sculptures of Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo are some of the great works of the age. After the Renaissance came the Reformation, an anti-clerical theological and social movement that resulted in the creation of Protestant Christianity. The Renaissance also engendered a culture of inquisitiveness which ultimately led to humanism and the Scientific Revolution, an effort to understand the natural world through direct observation and experiment. The success of the new scientific techniques inspired attempts to apply them to political and social affairs, known as the Enlightenment, by thinkers such as John Locke and Immanuel Kant. This development was accompanied by secularization as a continued decline of the influence of religious beliefs and authorities in the public and private spheres. Johannes Gutenberg's invention of movable type printing in 1440 helped spread the ideas of the new intellectual movements.

Florence, birthplace of the Italian Renaissance

In addition to changes wrought by incipient capitalism and colonialism, early modern Europeans experienced an increase in the power of the state. Absolute monarchs in France, Russia, the Habsburg lands, and Prussia produced powerful centralized states, with strong armies and efficient bureaucracies, all under the control of the king. In Russia, Ivan the Terrible was crowned in 1547 as the first tsar of Russia, and by annexing the Turkic khanates in the east, transformed Russia into a regional power, eventually replacing the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth as a major power in Eastern Europe. The countries of Western Europe, while expanding prodigiously through technological advances and colonial conquest, competed with each other economically and militarily in a state of almost constant war. Wars of particular note included the Thirty Years' War, the War of the Spanish Succession, the Seven Years' War, and the French Revolutionary Wars. The French Revolution, starting in 1789, laid the groundwork of liberal democracy by overthrowing monarchy. It led to the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte and the subsequent Napoleonic Wars of the early 19th century.

Africa

Throughout the 16th century the Ottomans conquered all of North Africa save for Morocco, which came under the rule of the Saadi dynasty at the same time, and then the Alawi dynasty in the 17th century. In the Horn of Africa there was the Oromo expansion in the 16th century, which weakened Ethiopia and caused Adal's collapse. Ajuran was succeeded by the Geledi Sultanate. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries Ethiopia rapidly expanded.

In West Africa, the Songhai Empire fell to Moroccan invasion in the late 16th century. They were succeeded by the Bamana Empire. The Fula jihads beginning in the 18th century led to the establishment of the Sokoto Caliphate, the Massina Empire, and the Tukulor Empire. In the forest regions, the Asante Empire was established in present-day Ghana. Between 1515 and 1800, 8 million Africans were exported in the Atlantic slave trade.

In the Congo Basin, Kongo fought three wars against the Portuguese who had begun colonising Angola, ending in the conquest of Ndongo in the 17th century. Further east, the Lunda Empire rose to dominate the region. It fell to the Chokwe in the 19th century. In the northern Great Lakes, there were the kingdoms of Bunyoro-Kitara, Buganda, and Rwanda among others.

Kilwa was conquered by the Portuguese in the 16th century as they began colonising Mozambique. They were defeated by the Omani Empire who took control of the Swahili coast. In Madagascar the 16th century onwards saw the emergence of Imerina, the Betsileo kingdoms, and the Sakalava empire; Imerina conquered most of the island in the 19th century. In the Zambezi Basin Mutapa was followed by the Rozvi Empire, with Maravi around Lake Malawi to its north. Mthwakazi succeeded Rozvi. Further south, the Dutch began colonising South Africa in the 16th century, who lost it to the British. In the 19th century the Mfecane ravaged the region and led to the establishment of the Zulu Kingdom.

South Asia

Taj Mahal, Mughal Empire, India

In the Indian subcontinent, the Mughal Empire was established under Babur in 1526 and lasted for two centuries. Starting in the northwest, it brought the entire subcontinent under Muslim rule by the late 17th century, except for the southernmost Indian provinces, which remained independent. To resist the Muslim rulers, the Hindu Maratha Empire was founded by Shivaji on the western coast in 1674. The Marathas gradually gained territory from the Mughals over several decades, particularly in the Mughal–Maratha Wars (1680–1707).

Sikhism developed at the end of the 15th century from the spiritual teachings of ten gurus. In 1799, Ranjit Singh established the Sikh Empire in the Punjab.

Northeast Asia

Ming dynasty section, Great Wall of China

In 1644, the Ming were supplanted by the Qing, the last Chinese imperial dynasty, which ruled until 1912. Japan experienced its Azuchi–Momoyama period (1568–1600), followed by the Edo period (1600–1868). The Korean Joseon dynasty (1392–1910) ruled throughout this period, repelling invasions from Japan and China in the 16th and 17th centuries. Expanded maritime trade with Europe significantly affected China and Japan during this period, particularly through the Portuguese in Macau and the Dutch in Nagasaki. However, China and Japan later pursued isolationist policies designed to eliminate foreign influences.

Southeast Asia

In 1511, the Portuguese overthrew the Malacca Sultanate in present-day Malaysia and Indonesian Sumatra. The Portuguese held this important trading territory (and the valuable associated navigational strait) until overthrown by the Dutch in 1641. The Johor Sultanate, centered on the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula, became the dominant trading power in the region.

European colonization expanded with the Dutch in Indonesia, the Portuguese in Timor, and the Spanish in the Philippines.

Oceania

The Pacific Islands of Oceania were also affected by European contact, starting with the circumnavigational voyage of Ferdinand Magellan (1519–1522), who landed in the Marianas and other islands. Abel Tasman (1642–1644) sailed to present-day Australia, New Zealand, and nearby islands. James Cook (1768–1779) made the first recorded European contact with Hawaii. In 1788, Britain founded its first Australian colony.

Americas

Several European powers colonized the Americas, largely displacing the native populations and conquering the advanced civilizations of the Aztecs and Inca. Diseases introduced by Europeans devastated American societies, killing 60–90 million people by 1600 and reducing the population by 90–95%. In some cases, colonial policies included the deliberate genocide of indigenous peoples. Spain, Portugal, Britain, and France all made extensive territorial claims, and undertook large-scale settlement, including the importation of large numbers of African slaves. One side-effect of the slave trade was cultural exchange through which various African traditions found their way to the Americas, including cuisine, music, and dance. Portugal claimed Brazil, while Spain seized the rest of South America, Mesoamerica, and southern North America. The Spanish mined and exported prodigious amounts of gold and silver, leading to a surge in inflation known as the Price Revolution in the 16th and 17th centuries in Western Europe.

In North America, Britain colonized the east coast while France settled the central region. Russia made incursions into the northwest coast of North America, with its first colony in present-day Alaska in 1784, and the outpost of Fort Ross in present-day California in 1812. France lost its North American territory to England and Spain after the Seven Years' War (1756–1763). Britain's Thirteen Colonies declared independence as the United States in 1776, ratified by the Treaty of Paris in 1783, ending the American Revolutionary War. In 1791, African slaves launched a successful rebellion in the French colony of Saint-Domingue. France won back its continental claims from Spain in 1800, but sold them to the United States in the Louisiana Purchase of 1803.

Modern era

Main articles: Modern era, 19th century, 20th century, and 21st century

Long nineteenth century

Main article: Long nineteenth century

See also: Age of Revolution and New Imperialism

James Watt's steam engine powered the Industrial Revolution.

The long nineteenth century traditionally starts with the French Revolution in 1789, and lasts until the outbreak of World War I in 1914. It saw the global spread of the Industrial Revolution, the greatest transformation of the world economy since the Neolithic Revolution. The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain around 1770 and used new modes of production—the factory, mass production, and mechanization—to manufacture a wide array of goods faster while using less labor than previously required. Industrialization raised the global standard of living but caused upheaval as factory owners and workers clashed over wages and working conditions. Along with industrialization came modern globalization, the increasing interconnection of world regions in the economic, political, and cultural spheres. Globalization began in the early 19th century and was enabled by improved transportation technologies such as railroads and steamships.

Empires of the world in 1898

European empires lost territories in Latin America, which won independence by the 1820s through military campaigns, but expanded elsewhere as their industrial economies gave them an advantage over the rest of the world. Britain gained control of the Indian subcontinent, Burma, Malaya, North Borneo, Hong Kong, and Aden; the French took Indochina; and the Dutch cemented their rule over Indonesia. The British also colonized Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa with large numbers of British colonists emigrating to these colonies. Russia colonized large pre-agricultural areas of Siberia. The United States completed its westward expansion, establishing control over the territory from the Atlantic to the Pacific coast. In the late 19th century to early 20th century, the European powers, driven by the Second Industrial Revolution, rapidly conquered and colonised almost the entirety of Africa. Only Ethiopia and Liberia remained independent. Imperial rule in Africa involved many atrocities such as those in the Congo Free State and the Herero and Nama genocide.

Within Europe, economic and military competition fostered the creation and consolidation of nation-states, and other ethno-cultural communities began to identify themselves as distinctive nations with aspirations for their own cultural and political autonomy. This nationalism became important to peoples across the world in the 19th and 20th centuries. The first wave of democratization occurred between 1828 and 1926, during which democratic institutions were established in 33 countries worldwide. Most of the world abolished slavery and serfdom in the 19th century. Over several decades, beginning in the late 19th century and continuing throughout the 20th, in many countries the women's suffrage movement won women the right to vote, and women began to enjoy greater access to education and to professions beyond domestic employment.

First airplane, the Wright Flyer, flew on 17 December 1903.

In response to the encroachment by European powers, several countries undertook programs of industrialization and political reform along Western lines. The Meiji Restoration in Japan was successful and led to the establishment of a colonial empire, while the tanzimat reforms in the Ottoman Empire did little to slow the Ottoman decline. China achieved some success with its Self-Strengthening Movement, but was devastated by the Taiping Rebellion, history's bloodiest civil war, which killed 20–30 million people between 1850 and 1864.

By the end of the century, the United States became the world's largest economy. During the Second Industrial Revolution, new technological advances, involving electric power, the internal combustion engine, and assembly-line manufacturing, further increased productivity. Technological innovations also provided new avenues for artistic expression through the media of photography, sound recording, and film. Meanwhile, industrial pollution and environmental degradation accelerated drastically. Balloon flight had been invented in the late 18th century, but it was only at the beginning of the 20th century that powered aircraft were developed.

The 20th century opened with Europe at an apex of wealth and power. Much of the world was under its direct colonial control or its indirect influence through heavily Europeanized nations like the United States and Japan. As the century unfolded, however, the global system dominated by rival powers was subjected to severe strains, and ultimately yielded to a more fluid structure of independent nation states.

World wars

Main articles: World War I and World War II

This transformation was catalyzed by wars of unparalleled scope and devastation. World War I was a global conflict from 1914 to 1918 between the Allies, led by France, Russia, and the United Kingdom, and the Central Powers, led by Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria. It had an estimated death toll ranging from 10 to 22.5 million and resulted in the collapse of four empires – the Austro-Hungarian, German, Ottoman, and Russian Empires. Its new emphasis on industrial technology had made traditional military tactics obsolete. The Armenian, Assyrian, and Greek genocides saw the systematic destruction, mass murder, and expulsion of those populations in the Ottoman Empire. From 1918 to 1920, the Spanish flu caused the deaths of at least 25 million people.

In the war's aftermath a League of Nations was formed in the hope of averting future international conflicts; and powerful ideologies rose to prominence. The Russian Revolution of 1917 created the first communist state, while the 1920s and 1930s saw fascist political parties gain control in Italy and Germany.

Ongoing national rivalries, exacerbated by the economic turmoil of the Great Depression, helped precipitate World War II. In that war, the vast majority of the world's countries, including all the great powers, fought as part of two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis. The leading Axis powers were Germany, Japan, and Italy; while the United Kingdom, the United States, the Soviet Union, and the Republic of China were the "Big Four" Allied powers.

Atomic bombing of Nagasaki, 1945

The militaristic governments of Germany and Japan pursued an ultimately doomed course of imperialist expansionism. In the course of doing so, Germany orchestrated the genocide of six million Jews in the Holocaust, and of millions of non-Jews across German-occupied Europe, while Japan murdered millions of Chinese. The war also saw the introduction and use of nuclear weapons, which brought unprecedented destruction and ultimately led to Japan's surrender. Estimates of the war's total casualties range from 55 to 80 million. During Joseph Stalin's rule from 1924 to 1953, the Soviet Union committed countless atrocities against its own people, including mass purges, forced labor camps, and widespread famine caused by state policies.

Contemporary history

Main article: Contemporary history

When World War II ended in 1945, the United Nations was founded in the hope of preventing future wars, as the League of Nations had been formed following World War I. The United Nations championed the human rights movement, in 1948 adopting a Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Several European countries formed what would evolve into a 27-member-state economic and political community, the European Union.

World War II had opened the way for the advance of communism into Eastern and Central Europe, China, North Korea, North Vietnam, and Cuba. To contain this advance, the United States established a global network of alliances. The largest, NATO, was established in 1949 and eventually grew to include 32 member states. In response, in 1955 the Soviet Union and its Eastern European allies formed the Warsaw Pact mutual-defense treaty.

Fall of the Berlin Wall, 1989

The United States and the Soviet Union emerged as the primary global powers in the aftermath of World War II. Both nations harbored deep suspicions and fears about the global spread of the other's political-economic system — capitalism for the United States and communism for the Soviet Union. This mutual distrust sparked the Cold War, a 45-year stand-off and arms race between the two nations and their allies.

With the development of nuclear weapons during World War II and their subsequent proliferation, all of humanity was put at risk of nuclear war between the two superpowers, as demonstrated by many incidents, most prominently the October 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis. Such war being viewed as impractical, the superpowers instead waged proxy wars in non-nuclear-armed Third World countries. The Cold War ended peacefully in 1991 after the Soviet Union collapsed, partly due to its inability to compete economically with the United States and Western Europe.

Cold War preparations to deter or fight a third world war accelerated advances in technologies that, though conceptualized before World War II, had been implemented for that war's exigencies, such as jet aircraft, rocketry, and computers. In the decades after World War II, these advances led to jet travel; artificial satellites with innumerable applications, including GPS; and the Internet, which in the 1990s began to gain traction as a form of communication. These inventions revolutionized the movement of people, ideas, and information.

Last Moon landing: Apollo 17 (1972)

The second half of the 20th century also saw groundbreaking scientific and technological developments such as the discovery of the structure of DNA and DNA sequencing, the worldwide eradication of smallpox, the Green Revolution in agriculture, the discovery of plate tectonics, the moon landings, crewed and uncrewed exploration of space, advancements in energy technologies, and foundational discoveries in physics phenomena ranging from the smallest entities (particle physics) to the greatest (physical cosmology).

These technical innovations had far-reaching effects. The world's population quadrupled to six billion during the 20th century, while world economic output increased by a factor of 20. The rate of population growth started to decline towards the end of the 20th century, in part because of increased awareness of family planning and better access to contraceptives. Parts of the world now have low or very low fertility rates. Public health measures and advances in medical science contributed to a sharp increase in global life expectancy from about 31 years in 1900 to over 66 years in 2000. In 1820, 75% of humanity lived on less than one dollar a day, while in 2001 only about 20% did. At the same time, economic inequality increased both within individual countries and between rich and poor countries. The importance of public education had already begun to increase in the 18th and 19th centuries but it was not until the end of the 20th and the beginning of the 21st centuries that compulsory and free education was provided to most children worldwide.

In China, the Maoist government implemented industrialization and collectivization policies as part of the Great Leap Forward (1958–1962), leading to the starvation deaths (1959–1961) of 30–40 million people. After these policies were rescinded, China entered a period of economic liberalization and rapid growth, with the economy expanding by 6.6% per year from 1978 to 2003. In the postwar decades, the African, Asian, and Oceanian colonies of European empires won their formal independence, a process known as decolonization. Postcolonial states in Africa struggled to grow their economies, facing structural barriers such as reliance on the export of commodities rather than manufactured goods. Sub-Saharan Africa was the world region hit hardest by the HIV/AIDS pandemic of the late 20th century. Moreover, Africa experienced high levels of violence, exemplified by the Second Congo War (1998–2003), the deadliest conflict since World War II. Latin America also faced economic problems and an over-reliance on commodity exports. The Middle East experienced numerous conflicts, including the Iran-Iraq War, the first and second Gulf wars, and the Syrian Civil War, as well as frequent and ongoing tensions between Israel and Palestine. Development efforts in Latin America were hindered by political instability, some of which was caused by the United States as it repeatedly intervened in the region.

Shanghai. China urbanized rapidly in the 21st century.

COVID-19 pandemic, 2020

The early 21st century was marked by growing economic globalization and integration, which brought both benefits and risks to interlinked economies, as exemplified by the Great Recession of the late 2000s and early 2010s. Communications expanded, with smartphones and social media becoming ubiquitous worldwide by the mid-2010s. By the early 2020s, artificial intelligence systems improved to the point of outperforming humans at many circumscribed tasks. The influence of religion continued to decline in many Western countries while some parts of the Muslim world saw the rise of fundamentalist movements. In 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic substantially disrupted global trading, caused recessions in the global economy, and spurred cultural paradigm shifts. Concerns grew as existential threats from environmental degradation and global warming became increasingly evident, while mitigation efforts, including a shift to sustainable energy, made gradual progress.

Academic research

The study of human history has a long tradition and early precursors were already practiced in the ancient period as attempts to provide comprehensive accounts of the history of the world. Most research before the 20th century focused on histories of individual communities and societies after the prehistoric period. This changed in the late 20th century, when attempts to integrate the diverse narratives into a common context reaching back to the emergence of the first humans became a central research topic. This transition to a widened perspective was accompanied by questioning Eurocentrism and the Western-focused perspective that had previously dominated academic history.

Like in other historical disciplines, the methodology of analyzing textual sources to construct narratives and interpretations of past events plays a central role in the study of human history. The scope of its topic poses the unique challenge of synthesizing a coherent and comprehensive narrative spanning different cultures, regions, and time periods while taking diverse individual perspectives into account. This is also reflected in its interdisciplinary approach by integrating insights from fields belonging to the humanities and the social, biological, and physical sciences, such as other historical disciplines, archaeology, anthropology, linguistics, genetics, paleontology, and geology. The interdisciplinary approach is of particular importance to the study of human history before the invention of writing.

Periodization

To provide an accessible overview, historians divide human history into different periods organized around key themes, events, or developments that have shaped human societies over time. The number of periods and their time frames depend on the chosen topics, and the transitions between periods are often more fluid than static periodization schemes suggest.

A traditionally influential periodization in European scholarship distinguishes between the ancient, medieval, and modern periods organized around historical events responsible for major shifts in political, economic, and cultural structures to mark the transitions between the periods: first the fall of the Western Roman Empire and later the emergence of the Renaissance. Another periodization divides human history into three periods based on the way humans engage with nature to produce goods. The first transition happened with the emergence of agriculture and husbandry to replace hunting and gathering as the main means of food production. The Industrial Revolution constitutes the second transition. A further approach uses the relations between societies to divide the history of the world into the periods of Middle Eastern dominance before 500 BCE, Eurasian cultural balance until 1500 CE, and Western dominance afterwards. The invention of writing is often used to demark prehistory from the ancient period while another approach divides early history based on the type of tools used in the Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages. Historians focusing on religion and culture identify the Axial Age as a key turning point that laid the spiritual and philosophical foundations of many of the world's major civilizations. Some historians draw on elements from different approaches to arrive at a more nuanced periodization.

References

Bibliography

• Abernethy, David B. (2000). The Dynamics of Global Dominance: European Overseas Empires, 1415–1980. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-09314-8.
• Aberth, John (2001). "From the Brink of the Apocalypse: Confronting Famine, War, Plague, and Death in the Later Middle Ages". hamilton.edu. Archived from the original on 17 September 2021. Retrieved 17 September 2021.
• Abi-Rached L, Jobin MJ, Kulkarni S, McWhinnie A, Dalva K, Gragert L, et al. (2011). "The Shaping of Modern Human Immune Systems by Multiregional Admixture with Archaic Humans". Science. 334 (6052): 89–94. Bibcode:2011Sci...334...89A. doi:10.1126/science.1209202. PMC 3677943. PMID 21868630.
• Abinales, Patricio N.; Amoroso, Donna J. (2017). State and Society in the Philippines. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-1-5381-0395-1. Archived from the original on 3 February 2024. Retrieved 17 January 2023.
• Abulafia, David (2011). The Great Sea: A Human History of the Mediterranean. Allen Lane. ISBN 978-0-7139-9934-1.
• Acheson, Dean (1969). Present at the Creation: My Years in the State Department. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-30412-1.
• Ackermann, Marsha E.; et al., eds. (2008e). "Three Kingdoms, Korea". Encyclopedia of world history. Facts on File. ISBN 978-0-8160-6386-4.
• Ackermann, Marsha E.; Schroeder, Michael J.; Terry, Janice J.; Upshur, Jiu-Hwa Lo; Whitters, Mark F., eds. (2008b). Encyclopedia of World History 2: The Expanding World 600 c.e. to 1449. Facts on File. ISBN 978-0-8160-6386-4.
• Ackermann, Marsha E.; Schroeder, Michael J.; Terry, Janice J.; Upshur, Jiu-Hwa Lo; Whitters, Mark F., eds. (2008c). Encyclopedia of World History 3: The First Global Age 1450 to 1749. Facts on File. ISBN 978-0-8160-6386-4.
• Ackermann, Marsha E.; Schroeder, Michael J.; Terry, Janice J.; Upshur, Jiu-Hwa Lo; Whitters, Mark F., eds. (2008d). Encyclopedia of World History 4: Age of Revolution and Empire 1750 to 1899. Facts on File. ISBN 978-0-8160-6386-4.
• Ackermann, Marsha E.; Schroeder, Michael J.; Terry, Janice J.; Upshur, Jiu-Hwa Lo; Whitters, Mark F., eds. (2008a). Encyclopedia of World History 5: Crisis and Achievement 1900 to 1949. Facts on File. ISBN 978-0-8160-6386-4.
• Ackermann, Marsha E.; Schroeder, Michael J.; Terry, Janice J.; Upshur, Jiu-Hwa Lo; Whitters, Mark F., eds. (2008). Encyclopedia of World History 6: The Contemporary World 1950 to the Present. Facts on File. ISBN 978-0-8160-6386-4.
• Ackermann RR, Mackay A, Arnold ML (2015). "The Hybrid Origin of "Modern" Humans". Evolutionary Biology. 43 (1): 1–11. doi:10.1007/s11692-015-9348-1. S2CID 14329491.
• Adovasio, J. M.; Soffer, Olga; Page, Jake (2007). The Invisible Sex: Uncovering the True Roles of Women in Prehistory. HarperCollins e-books. ISBN 978-0-06-157177-0. OCLC 191804695.
• Aldenderfer, Mark (2011). "Era 1: Beginnings of Human Society to 4000 BCE". World History Encyclopedia. Vol. 2. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-1-85109-930-6.
• Allchin, Bridget; Allchin, Raymond (1997). Origins of a Civilization: The Prehistory and Early Archaeology of South Asia. Viking. ISBN 978-0-670-87713-3.
• Allison, Graham (2018). "The Myth of the Liberal Order: From Historical Accident to Conventional Wisdom". Foreign Affairs. Vol. 97, no. 4. pp. 124–133. Archived from the original on 9 July 2022. Retrieved 3 July 2022.
• Andaya, Barbara Watson; Andaya, Leonard (2015). A History of Early Modern Southeast Asia, 1400–1830. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-88992-6.
• Andrea, Alfred J.; Neel, Carolyn (2011). "What Is World History?". World History Encyclopedia. Vol. 1. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-1-85109-930-6.
• Anthony, Reid (2015). A History of Southeast Asia: Critical Crossroads. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-631-17961-0.
• Armstrong McKay, David I.; et al. (2022). "Exceeding 1.5 °C Global Warming Could Trigger Multiple Climate Tipping Points". Science. 377 (6611): eabn7950. doi:10.1126/science.abn7950. hdl:10871/131584. PMID 36074831. S2CID 252161375.
• Axworthy, Michael (2008). A History of Iran: Empire of the Mind. Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-00888-9.
• Babones, Salvatore (2008). "Studying Globalization: Methodological Issues". In Ritzer, George (ed.). The Blackwell Companion to Globalization. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-76642-2. OCLC 232611725. Archived from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 13 December 2023.
• Bard, Kathryn A. (2000). "The Emergence of the Egyptian State (c. 3200–2686 BC)". In Shaw, Ian (ed.). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press. pp. 57–82. ISBN 978-0-19-280458-7.
• Barker, Graeme; Goucher, Candace, eds. (2015). A World with Agriculture, 12,000 BCE–500 CE. The Cambridge World History. Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-19218-7. Archived from the original on 29 April 2024. Retrieved 3 September 2022.
• Barro, Robert J.; Lee, Jong-Wha (2015). "2. International Comparisons of School Enrollment and Educational Attainment, 1870–2010". In Barro, Robert J.; Yi, Chong-hwa (eds.). Education Matters: Global Schooling Gains from the 19th to the 21st Century. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199379231.
• Baumann, Martin (2010). "Hinduism". In Melton, J. Gordon; Baumann, Martin (eds.). Religions of the World: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices [6 volumes]. Bloomsbury Publishing USA. ISBN 978-1-59884-204-3.
• Baumard, Nicolas; Hyafil, Alexandre; Boyer, Pascal (2015). "What Changed During the Axial Age: Cognitive Styles or Reward Systems?". Communicative & Integrative Biology. 8 (5). United States National Library of Medicine: e1046657. doi:10.1080/19420889.2015.1046657. PMC 4802742. PMID 27066164.
• BBC (2001). "De-coding the Black Death". BBC. Archived from the original on 7 July 2017. Retrieved 24 November 2016.
• Beard, Mary (2015). SPQR: A History of Ancient Rome. Profile Books. ISBN 978-1-84668-380-0.
• Becker, Tobias; Platt, Len (2023). "Reading Cultures – Modernity and the Word". Popular Culture in Europe Since 1800. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-003-41259-5.
• Benjamin, Craig, ed. (2015). A World with States, Empires, and Networks, 1200 BCE–900 CE. The Cambridge World History. Vol. 4. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-01572-2. Archived from the original on 28 October 2022. Retrieved 28 October 2022.
• Bennett, Matthew; et al. (2021). "Evidence of Humans in North America During the Last Glacial Maximum". Science. 373 (6562): 1528–1531. Bibcode:2021Sci...373.1528B. doi:10.1126/science.abg7586. PMID 34554787. S2CID 237616125. Archived from the original on 15 September 2022. Retrieved 24 September 2021.
• Bentley, Jerry; Subrahmanyam, Sanjay; Wiesner-Hanks, Merry, eds. (2015a). The Construction of a Global World, 1400–1800 CE, Part 1, Foundations. The Cambridge World History. Vol. 6. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139194594. ISBN 978-0-521-76162-8. Archived from the original on 26 January 2023. Retrieved 26 January 2023.
• Bentley, Jerry; Subrahmanyam, Sanjay; Wiesner-Hanks, Merry, eds. (2015b). The Construction of a Global World, 1400–1800 CE, Part 2, Patterns of Change. The Cambridge World History. Vol. 6. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139022460. ISBN 978-0-521-19246-0. Archived from the original on 12 January 2023. Retrieved 26 January 2023.
• Bentley, Jerry H.; Ziegler, Herbert F. (2008). Traditions & Encounters: A Global Perspective on the Past: Volume II From 1500 to the Present (4th ed.). McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-333063-1.
• Berger, Stefan (2008). "Introduction". A Companion to Nineteenth-Century Europe, 1789 - 1914. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-4051-5232-7.
• Bideleux, Robert; Jeffries, Ian (1998). A History of Eastern Europe: Crisis and Change. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-16112-1. Archived from the original on 29 April 2024. Retrieved 10 February 2022.
• Blackhawk, Ned; Kiernan, Ben; Madley, Benjamin; Taylor, Rebe, eds. (2023). The Cambridge World History of Genocide. Vol. 2: Genocide in the Indigenous, Early Modern and Imperial Worlds, from c.1535 to World War One. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108765480. ISBN 978-1-108-76548-0.
• Boltz, William G. (1996). "Early Chinese Writing". In Bright, Peter; Daniels, William (eds.). The World's Writing Systems. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-507993-0.
• Bozarslan, Hamit [in French]; Duclert, Vincent [in French]; Kévorkian, Raymond H. (2015). Comprendre le Génocide des Arméniens—1915 à nos Jours [Understanding the Armenian Genocide: 1915 to the Present Day] (in French). Tallandier. ISBN 979-10-210-0681-2.
• Bristow, William (2023). "Enlightenment". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved 7 June 2024.
• Brown, Cynthia Stokes (2007). Big History: From the Big Bang to the Present. New Press. ISBN 978-1-59558-196-9.
• Brown, Stephen F.; Anatolios, Khaled; Palmer, Martin (2009). O'Brien, Joanne (ed.). Catholicism & Orthodox Christianity. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-1-60413-106-2.
• Bulliet, Richard; Crossley, Pamela; Headrick, Daniel; Hirsch, Steven; Johnson, Lyman (2011). The Earth and Its Peoples, Brief Edition. Vol. 1. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-495-91311-5.
• Bulliet, Richard; Crossley, Pamela; Headrick, Daniel; Hirsch, Steven; Johnson, Lyman; Northrup, David (2015a). The Earth and Its Peoples: A Global History. Vol. 1 (6th ed.). Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-1-285-44567-0. Archived from the original on 29 April 2024. Retrieved 25 August 2022.
• Bulliet, Richard; Crossley, Pamela; Headrick, Daniel; Hirsch, Steven; Johnson, Lyman; Northrup, David (2015b). The Earth and Its Peoples: A Global History. Vol. 2 (6th ed.). Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-1-285-44570-0.
• Burbank, Jane (2010). Empires in World History: Power and the Politics of Difference. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-12708-8.
• Burbank, Jane; Cooper, Frederick (2021). Empires in World History: Power and the Politics of Difference. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-3470-9.
• Burley, David V. (1998). "Tongan Archaeology and the Tongan Past, 2850–150 B.P.". Journal of World Prehistory. 12 (3): 368–9, 375. doi:10.1023/A:1022322303769. ISSN 1573-7802. JSTOR 25801130. S2CID 160340278.
• Burstein, Stanley M. (2017). The World from 1000 BCE to 300 CE. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-933613-5. Archived from the original on 5 October 2023. Retrieved 1 October 2023.
• Butt, John J. (2005). The Greenwood Dictionary of World History. Bloomsbury Publishing USA. ISBN 978-0-313-08315-0.
• Cajani, Luigi (2013). "Periodization". In Bentley, Jerry H. (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of World History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-968606-3.
• Carter, Tim; Butt, John, eds. (2005). The Cambridge History of Seventeenth-Century Music: Volume 1. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-79273-8.
• Casselman, Ben (2022). "Pandemic's Economic Impact Is Easing, but Aftershocks May Linger". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 11 May 2023. Retrieved 11 May 2023.
• Chainey, Dee Dee; Winsham, Willow (2021). Treasury of Folklore: Seas and Rivers: Sirens, Selkies and Ghost Ships. Batsford Books. ISBN 978-1-84994-705-3.
• Chakrabarti, Dilip K. (2004). "Introduction". In Chkrabarti, Dilip K. (ed.). Indus Civilization Sites in India: New Discoveries. Marg Publications. pp. 10–13. ISBN 978-81-85026-63-3.
• Chapman, Tim (2002). Imperial Russia, 1801-1905. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-57970-9.
• Chrisp, Peter (2016). "Civilizations Develop". Big History: Our Incredible Journey, from Big Bang to Now. Dorling Kindersley. ISBN 978-0-241-22590-5. Archived from the original on 2 May 2024. Retrieved 4 May 2024.
• Christian, David (2008). This Fleeting World: A Short History of Humanity. Berkshire Publishing. ISBN 978-1-933782-04-1.
• Christian, David (2011) [2004]. Maps of Time: An Introduction to Big History. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-27144-9. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 December 2023.
• Christian, David, ed. (2015). Introducing World History, to 10,000 BCE. The Cambridge World History. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139194662. ISBN 978-0-521-76333-2. Archived from the original on 26 January 2023. Retrieved 26 January 2023.
• Christian, David (2015a). "Introduction and Overview". In Christian, David (ed.). The Cambridge World History. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-76333-2.
• Clarkson C, Jacobs Z, Marwick B, Fullagar R, Wallis L, Smith M, et al. (2017). "Human Occupation of Northern Australia by 65,000 Years Ago". Nature. 547 (7663): 306–310. Bibcode:2017Natur.547..306C. doi:10.1038/nature22968. hdl:2440/107043. PMID 28726833. S2CID 205257212.
• Clavin, Patricia (2005). "Defining Transnationalism". Contemporary European History. 14 (4): 421–439. doi:10.1017/S0960777305002705.
• Coe, Michael D. (2011). The Maya (8th ed.). Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-28902-0.
• Coedès, George (1968). Walter F. Vella (ed.). The Indianized States of Southeast Asia. trans. Susan Brown Cowing. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-0368-1.
• Conrad, Sebastian (2016). What is Global History?. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-15525-8.
• Coolidge, Frederick Lawrence; Wynn, Thomas Grant (2018). The Rise of Homo Sapiens: The Evolution of Modern Thinking. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-068091-6.
• Curley, Robert, ed. (2011). The Complete History of Aviation: From Ballooning to Supersonic Flight. Britannica Educational Publishing. ISBN 978-1-61530-725-8.
• Davies, Norman (2005). God's Playground: A History of Poland. Vol. 1: The Origins to 1795. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-925339-5.
• de la Torre, Ignacio (2019). "Searching for the Emergence of Stone Tool Making in Eastern Africa". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 116 (24): 11567–11569. Bibcode:2019PNAS..11611567D. doi:10.1073/pnas.1906926116. PMC 6575166. PMID 31164417.
• DeLaet, Debra L.; DeLaet, David E. (2015). Global Health in the 21st Century: The Globalization of Disease and Wellness. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-25899-5.
• Deanesly, Margaret (2019). "The Carolingian Conquests". A History of Early Medieval Europe. Taylor & Francis. pp. 339–355. doi:10.4324/9780429061530-18. ISBN 978-0-429-06153-0. S2CID 198789183. Archived from the original on 17 September 2021. Retrieved 17 September 2021.
• Deming, David (2014). Science and Technology in World History, Volume 1: The Ancient World and Classical Civilization. McFarland & Company. ISBN 978-0-7864-5657-4.
• Denemark, Robert Allen (2000). World System History: The Social Science of Long-term Change. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-23276-0.
• Diener, Alexander C.; Hagen, Joshua (2010). "Russia's Kaliningrad Exclave: Discontinuity as a Threat to Sovereignty". In Diener, Alexander C. (ed.). Borderlines and Borderlands: Political Oddities at the Edge of the Nation-State. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-7425-5635-5.
• Dinan, Desmond (2004). Europe Recast: A History of European Union. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 0-333-98734-9.
• Domínguez-Rodrigo, Manuel; Alcalá, Luis (2016). "3.3-Million-Year-Old Stone Tools and Butchery Traces? More Evidence Needed" (PDF). PaleoAnthropology: 46–53. Archived (PDF) from the original on 14 December 2023. Retrieved 14 December 2023.
• Duchesne, Ricardo (2011). The Uniqueness of Western Civilization. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-19461-8.
• Dunbar, Robin (2016). Human Evolution: Our Brains and Behavior. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-061678-6.
• Dunham, Will (2008). "Black Death 'Discriminated' Between Victims". ABC Science. Archived from the original on 20 December 2016. Retrieved 24 November 2016.
• Dunn, John (1994). Democracy: The Unfinished Journey 508 BCE – 1993 CE. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-827934-1.
• Dynneson, Thomas L. (2008). City-state Civism in Ancient Athens: Its Real and Ideal Expressions. Peter Lang. ISBN 978-1-4331-0311-7.
• Easton, Richard D. (2013). GPS Declassified. Potomac Books. ISBN 978-1-61234-408-9. Archived from the original on 18 March 2024. Retrieved 16 September 2022.
• Ebrey; Walthall; Palais (2006). East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Company. ISBN 978-0-618-13384-0.
• Evans, Damian; et al. (2007). "A Comprehensive Archaeological Map of the World's Largest Pre-industrial Settlement Complex at Angkor, Cambodia". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 104 (36): 14279. Bibcode:2007PNAS..10414277E. doi:10.1073/pnas.0702525104. PMC 1964867. PMID 17717084.
• Fagan, Brian M. (2005). Ancient North America: The Archaeology of a Continent (4th ed.). Thames & Hudson Inc. ISBN 978-0-500-28148-2.
• Fagan, Brian M.; Beck, Charlotte, eds. (1996). The Oxford Companion to Archaeology. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-507618-9. Archived from the original on 17 February 2024. Retrieved 19 April 2020.
• Fagan, Brian M.; Durrani, Nadia (2021). "3. Enter Homo Sapiens (c. 300,000 Years Ago and Later)". World Prehistory: The Basics. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-000-46679-9.
• Fage, John; Tordoff, William (2002). A History of Africa (4th ed.). Routledge. ISBN 0-415-25247-4.
• Faltin, Lucia; Wright, Melanie J. (2007). The Religious Roots of Contemporary European Identity. A&C Black. ISBN 978-0-8264-9482-5.
• Fasulo, Linda (2015). An Insider's Guide to the UN (3rd ed.). Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-20365-3.
• Flannery, Kent V.; Marcus, Joyce (1996). Zapotec Civilization: How Urban Society Evolved in Mexico's Oaxaca Valley. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-05078-1.
• Flenley, John; Bahn, Paul (2003). The Enigmas of Easter Island. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-164719-2.
• Friedman, Thomas (2007). The World Is Flat: A Brief History of the Twenty-First Century (Further Updated and Expanded ed.). Picador. ISBN 978-0-312-42507-4.
• Gamble, Andrew (1981). An Introduction to Modern Social and Political Thought. Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-349-16615-2.
• Ganivet, Elisa (2019). Border Wall Aesthetics: Artworks in Border Spaces. transcript Verlag. ISBN 978-3-8394-4777-2.
• Geraghty, Paul (1994). "Linguistic Evidence for the Tongan Empire". In Dutton, Tom (ed.). Language Contact and Change in the Austronesian World. Trends in linguistics: Studies and monographs. Vol. 77. Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-012786-7. Archived from the original on 29 April 2024. Retrieved 6 June 2016.
• Gernet, Jacques (1996). A History of Chinese Civilization. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-49781-7.
• Getzen, Thomas E. (2022). Money and Medicine: The Evolution of National Health Expenditures. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-757328-0.
• Gilbert, Martin (2013). The Routledge Atlas of Russian History. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-10831-1.
• Gleick, James (2019). "Moon Fever". The New York Review of Books. Vol. LXVI, no. 13. Archived from the original on 1 July 2022. Retrieved 1 July 2022.
• Goldhill, Simon (1997). "The Audience of Athenian Tragedy". In Easterling, P. E. (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Greek Tragedy. Cambridge Companions to Literature series. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 54–68. ISBN 0-521-42351-1.
• Gowlett, J. A. J. (2016). "The Discovery of Fire by Humans: A Long and Convoluted Process". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 371 (1696): 20150164. doi:10.1098/rstb.2015.0164. PMC 4874402. PMID 27216521.
• Graeber, David; Wengrow, David (2021). The Dawn of Everything: A New History of Humanity. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN 978-0-374-15735-7. Archived from the original on 15 November 2022. Retrieved 15 November 2022.
• Greene, Elizabeth B. (2017). Buildings and Landmarks of 19th-Century America: American Society Revealed. Bloomsbury Publishing USA. ISBN 978-1-4408-3573-5.
• Grewal, J. S. (1998). The Sikhs of the Punjab. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-63764-0.
• Haigh, Gerald (2009). Special Times: Sikhism. A&C Black. ISBN 978-1-4081-0434-7.
• Hammer MF (2013). "Human Hybrids" (PDF). Scientific American. 308 (5): 66–71. Bibcode:2013SciAm.308e..66H. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0513-66. PMID 23627222. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 August 2018.
• Harmand, Sonia; et al. (2015). "3.3-million-year-old Stone Tools from Lomekwi 3, West Turkana, Kenya". Nature. 521 (7552): 310–315. Bibcode:2015Natur.521..310H. doi:10.1038/nature14464. PMID 25993961. S2CID 1207285. Archived from the original on 9 October 2021. Retrieved 27 July 2022.
• Harvati, Katerina; Röding, Carolin; Bosman, Abel M.; Karakostis, Fotios A.; Grün, Rainer; Stringer, Chris; Karkanas, Panagiotis; Thompson, Nicholas C.; Koutoulidis, Vassilis; Moulopoulos, Lia A.; Gorgoulis, Vassilis G. (2019). "Apidima Cave Fossils Provide Earliest Evidence of Homo Sapiens in Eurasia". Nature. 571 (7766): 500–504. doi:10.1038/s41586-019-1376-z. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 31292546. S2CID 195873640. Archived from the original on 10 July 2019. Retrieved 10 July 2022.
• Hayas, Caltron J.H. (1953). Christianity and Western Civilization. Stanford University Press.
• Haynes, Jeffrey; Hough, Peter; Pilbeam, Bruce (2023). World Politics. Sage. ISBN 978-1-5297-7459-7.
• Headrick, Daniel R. (2009). Technology: A World History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-533821-8. Archived from the original on 5 October 2023. Retrieved 30 September 2023.
• Hemingway, Colette; Hemingway, Seán (2007). "Art of the Hellenistic Age and the Hellenistic Tradition". Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. Metropolitan Museum of Art. Archived from the original on 31 May 2013. Retrieved 18 November 2016.
• Henshall, Kenneth (1999). A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower. St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-21986-5.
• Henshall, Kenneth (2012). A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower (3rd ed.). Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-230-36918-4.
• Herries AI, Martin JM, Leece AB, Adams JW, Boschian G, Joannes-Boyau R, et al. (2020). "Contemporaneity of Australopithecus, Paranthropus, and Early Homo Erectus in South Africa". Science. 368 (6486): 7293. doi:10.1126/science.aaw7293. PMID 32241925.
• Herschkovitz, Israel; et al. (2018). "The Earliest Modern Humans Outside Africa". Science. 359 (6374): 456–459. Bibcode:2018Sci...359..456H. doi:10.1126/science.aap8369. hdl:10072/372670. PMID 29371468.
• Heyman, Neil (1997). World War I. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-1-57356-656-8.
• Hiro, Dilip (1989). Holy Wars: The Rise of Islamic Fundamentalism. Routledge. ISBN 041590207X.
• Horn, Jeff (2016). The Industrial Revolution: History, Documents, and Key Questions. Bloomsbury Publishing USA. ISBN 978-1-61069-885-6.
• Hourani, Albert (1991). A History of the Arab Peoples. New York: MJF Books. ISBN 978-1-56731-216-4.
• Howe, D. C.; Chauhan, R. S.; Soderberg, A. T.; Buckley, M. R. (2020). "Paradigm Shifts Caused by the COVID-19 Pandemic". Organizational Dynamics. 50 (4). doi:10.1016/j.orgdyn.2020.100804. PMC 7648497. PMID 33191959.
• Hublin JJ, Ben-Ncer A, Bailey SE, Freidline SE, Neubauer S, Skinner MM, et al. (2017). "New Fossils from Jebel Irhoud, Morocco and the Pan-African Origin of Homo Sapiens" (PDF). Nature. 546 (7657): 289–292. Bibcode:2017Natur.546..289H. doi:10.1038/nature22336. PMID 28593953. S2CID 256771372. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 January 2020. Retrieved 27 July 2022.
• Huffman, James (2010). Japan in World History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-536808-6. Archived from the original on 2 December 2023. Retrieved 2 December 2023.
• Hughes-Warrington, Marnie (2015). "Writing World History". In Christian, David (ed.). The Cambridge World History. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-76333-2.
• Huhle, Teresa (2022). "Demographic Concerns and Interventions". In Unger, Corinna R.; Borowy, Iris; Pernet, Corinne A. (eds.). The Routledge Handbook on the History of Development. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-000-60205-0.
• Huntington, Samuel P. (1991). The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late 20th Century. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0-8061-8604-7.
• Iliffe, John (2007). Africans: The History of a Continent (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-68297-8.
• Ivanov, Serguey F. (2009). "Population Growth and New World Population Redistribution". In Vishnevsky, Anatoly G. (ed.). Population and Development: Challenges and Opportunities. EOLSS. ISBN 978-1-84826-086-3.
• Johnston, Sarah Iles, ed. (2004). Religions of the Ancient World: A Guide. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-01517-3.
• Jungers, William L. (1988). "Lucy's Length: Stature Reconstruction in Australopithecus Afarensis (A.L.288-1) with Implications for Other Small-bodied Hominids". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 76 (2): 227–231. doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330760211. PMID 3137822.
• Kazeroony, Hamid H. (2023). "2. Postcoloniality: Colonialism Roots and Scope". Decoloniality Praxis. Emerald Group Publishing. ISBN 978-1-80262-953-8.
• Keay, John (2000). India: A History. Atlantic Monthly Press. ISBN 978-0-87113-800-2.
• Kedar, Benjamin; Wiesner-Hanks, Merry, eds. (2015). Expanding Webs of Exchange and Conflict, 500 CE–1500 CE. The Cambridge World History. Vol. 5. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-19074-9. Archived from the original on 18 November 2022. Retrieved 18 November 2022.
• Kelly, Christopher (2007). The Roman Empire: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-280391-7. Archived from the original on 16 November 2023. Retrieved 16 November 2023.
• Kennedy, Paul (1987). The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers: Economic Change and Military Conflict from 1500 to 2000. Random House. ISBN 978-0-394-54674-2.
• Kent, Susan Kingsley (2020). Gender: A World History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-062197-1. Archived from the original on 12 August 2023. Retrieved 12 August 2023.
• Kiernan, Ben; Lemos, T. M.; Taylor, Tristan S., eds. (2023). The Cambridge World History of Genocide. Vol. 1: Genocide in the Ancient, Medieval and Premodern Worlds. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108655989. ISBN 978-1-108-65598-9.
• Kinzel, Moritz; Clare, Lee (2020). "Monumental – Compared to What? A Perspective from Göbekli Tepe". In Gebauer, Anne Birgitte; Sørensen, Lasse; Teather, Anne; Valera, António Carlos (eds.). Monumentalising Life in the Neolithic: Narratives of Change and Continuity. Oxbow. ISBN 978-1-78925-495-2. Archived from the original on 29 April 2024. Retrieved 9 September 2022.
• Kirch, Patrick Vinton; Green, Roger C. (2001). Hawaiki, Ancestral Polynesia: An Essay in Historical Anthropology. Cambridge University press. ISBN 978-0-521-78879-3. Archived from the original on 29 April 2024. Retrieved 10 January 2021.
• Koch, Paul L.; Barnosky, Anthony D. (2006). "Late Quaternary Extinctions: State of the Debate". Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics. 37 (1): 215–250. doi:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.34.011802.132415. S2CID 16590668.
• Kolbert, Elizabeth (2014). The Sixth Extinction: An Unnatural History. Henry Holt and Company. ISBN 978-0-8050-9979-9. Archived from the original on 18 November 2023. Retrieved 18 November 2023.
• Kolbert, Elizabeth (2023). "Phosphorus Saved Our Way of Life—and Now Threatens to End It". The New Yorker. ISSN 0028-792X. Archived from the original on 28 November 2023. Retrieved 18 November 2023.
• Kosso, Cynthia; Scott, Anne (2009). The Nature and Function of Water, Baths, Bathing, and Hygiene from Antiquity Through the Renaissance. Brill. ISBN 978-9004173576. Archived from the original on 18 March 2024. Retrieved 5 February 2024.
• Kte'pi, Bill (2013). "Chronology". In Ainsworth, James (ed.). Sociology of Education: An A-to-Z Guide. Sage. ISBN 978-1-5063-5473-6. Archived from the original on 3 May 2023. Retrieved 3 May 2023.
• Kulke, Hermann; Rothermund, Dietmar (1990). A History of India. Dorset Press. ISBN 0-88029-577-5.
• Kunertova, Dominika (2024). "9 Transatlantic Burden Sharing". In Olsen, John Andreas (ed.). Routledge Handbook of NATO. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-040-02626-7.
• Kuran, Timur (2023). Freedoms Delayed: Political Legacies of Islamic Law in the Middle East. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-009-32001-6.
• Lal, Vinay (2001). "The Mughal Empire". Manas: India and its Neighbors. University of California, Los Angeles. Archived from the original on 30 April 2015. Retrieved 12 April 2015.
• Landes, David S. (1969). The Unbound Prometheus: Technological Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-07200-7.
• Lang, Michael (2015). "Evolution, Rupture, and Periodization". In Christian, David (ed.). The Cambridge World History. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-76333-2.
• Larson, G.; Piperno, D. R.; Allaby, R. G.; Purugganan, M. D.; Andersson, L.; Arroyo-Kalin, M.; Barton, L.; Climer Vigueira, C.; Denham, T.; Dobney, K.; Doust, A. N.; Gepts, P.; Gilbert, M. T. P.; Gremillion, K. J.; Lucas, L.; Lukens, L.; Marshall, F. B.; Olsen, K. M.; Pires, J.C.; Richerson, P. J.; Rubio De Casas, R.; Sanjur, O.I.; Thomas, M. G.; Fuller, D.Q. (2014). "Current Perspectives and the Future of Domestication Studies". PNAS. 111 (17): 6139–6146. Bibcode:2014PNAS..111.6139L. doi:10.1073/pnas.1323964111. PMC 4035915. PMID 24757054.
• Lewin, Roger (2009) [1984]. Human Evolution: An Illustrated Introduction (5th ed.). John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-4051-5614-1. Archived from the original on 29 April 2024. Retrieved 24 August 2022.
• Lewis, Mark Edward (2009). China's Cosmopolitan Empire: The Tang Dynasty. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-03306-1. Archived from the original on 5 October 2023. Retrieved 15 September 2023.
• Lewton, Kristi L. (2017). "Bipedalism". In Fuentes, Agustín (ed.). The International Encyclopedia of Primatology, 3 Volume Set. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-67337-9.
• Li, Feng; Petraglia, Michael; Roberts, Patrick; Gao, Xing (2020). "The northern dispersal of early modern humans in eastern Eurasia" (PDF). Science Bulletin. 65 (20): 1699–1701. Bibcode:2020SciBu..65.1699L. doi:10.1016/j.scib.2020.06.026. PMID 36659239.
• Lieberman, Victor B. (2003). Strange Parallels: Southeast Asia in Global Context, c. 800–1830, Volume 1, Integration on the Mainland. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-80496-7. Archived from the original on 29 April 2024. Retrieved 24 June 2022.
• Lorge, Peter (2015). The Reunification of China: Peace Through War Under the Song Dynasty. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-08475-9. Archived from the original on 29 April 2024. Retrieved 22 June 2022.
• MacKnight, C. C. (1986). "Macassans and the Aboriginal Past". Archaeology in Oceania. 21: 69–75. doi:10.1002/j.1834-4453.1986.tb00126.x.
• Manning, Patrick (2013). "Epistemology". In Bentley, Jerry H. (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of World History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-968606-3.
• Manning, Patrick (2020). Methods for Human History: Studying Social, Cultural, and Biological Evolution. Springer Nature. ISBN 978-3-030-53882-8.
• Martell, Luke (2010). The Sociology of Globalization. Polity. ISBN 978-0-7456-3674-0.
• Martikainen, Tuomas (2017). "The Global Political Economy, Welfare State Reforms, and the Governance of Religion". In Nynas, Peter (ed.). Post-Secular Society. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-351-49761-9.
• Martin, Thomas (2000) [1996]. Ancient Greece: From Prehistoric to Hellenic Times (Revised ed.). Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-08493-1.
• Mathew, Oommen P.; Bhatia, Jatinder (2010). Innovations in Neonatal-perinatal Medicine: Innovative Technologies and Therapies that Have Fundamentally Changed the Way We Deliver Care for the Fetus and the Neonate. World Scientific. ISBN 978-981-4280-04-4.
• Matsuda, Matt (2012). Pacific Worlds: A History of Seas, Peoples, and Cultures. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-88763-2. Archived from the original on 29 April 2024. Retrieved 5 July 2022.
• McClellan, James E.; Dorn, Harold (2006). Science and Technology in World History: An Introduction. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-8360-6. Archived from the original on 6 January 2024. Retrieved 11 October 2022.
• McEvedy, Colin (1961). The Penguin Atlas of Medieval History. Penguin Books.
• McNeill, William H. (1999) [1967]. A World History (4th ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-511616-8.
• McNeill, William H. (2010). History of Western Civilization: A Handbook. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-56162-2.
• McNeill, William Hardy (2017). The Global Condition: Conquerors, Catastrophes, and Community. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-8510-7.
• McNeill, J. R.; McNeill, William (2003). The Human Web: A Bird's-eye View of World History. Norton. ISBN 0-393-05179-X.
• McNeill, J. R.; Pomeranz, Kenneth, eds. (2015a). Production, Destruction and Connection, 1750-Present, Part 1, Structures, Spaces, and Boundary Making. The Cambridge World History. Vol. 7. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139196079. ISBN 978-1-108-40775-5. Archived from the original on 26 January 2023. Retrieved 26 January 2023.
• McNeill, J. R.; Pomeranz, Kenneth, eds. (2015b). Production, Destruction and Connection, 1750–Present, Part 2, Shared Transformations?. The Cambridge World History. Vol. 7. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-19964-3. Archived from the original on 26 January 2023. Retrieved 26 January 2023.
• McNiven, Ian J. (2017). "22. Australasia and the Pacific". In Benjamin, Craig (ed.). The Cambridge World History: Volume 4, A World with States, Empires and Networks 1200 BCE-900 CE. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-40771-7.
• McPherron, Shannon P.; Alemseged, Zeresenay; Marean, Curtis W.; Wynn, Jonathan G.; Reed, Denné; Geraads, Denis; Bobe, René; Béarat, Hamdallah A. (2010). "Evidence for Stone-tool-assisted Consumption of Animal Tissues Before 3.39 million Years Ago at Dikika, Ethiopia". Nature. 466 (7308): 857–860. Bibcode:2010Natur.466..857M. doi:10.1038/nature09248. PMID 20703305. S2CID 4356816.
• Merrill, Ronald T.; McElhinny, Michael W. (1983). The Earth's magnetic field: Its history, origin and planetary perspective (2nd printing ed.). Academic press. p. 1. ISBN 0-12-491242-7.
• Meyer-Fong, Tobie S. (2013). What Remains: Coming to Terms with Civil War in 19th Century China. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-5425-5. Archived from the original on 18 March 2024. Retrieved 19 September 2022.
• Meyerowitz, Eva L. R. (1975). The Early History of the Akan States of Ghana. Red Candle Press. ISBN 978-0-608-39035-2.
• Mirsepassi, Ali; Fernée, Tadd Graham (2014). Islam, Democracy, and Cosmopolitanism: At Home and in the World. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-05397-7.
• Morley, Iain (2013). The Prehistory of Music: Human Evolution, Archaeology, and the Origins of Musicality. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-923408-0.
• Morys, Matthias (2020). The Economic History of Central, East and South-East Europe: 1800 to the Present. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-317-41411-7.
• Murphy, John (2014). Gods & Goddesses of the Inca, Maya, and Aztec Civilizations. The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc. ISBN 978-1-62275-396-3. Archived from the original on 10 December 2023. Retrieved 3 May 2023.
• Naughton, John (2016). "The Evolution of the Internet: From Military Experiment to General Purpose Technology". Journal of Cyber Policy. 1 (1): 5–28. doi:10.1080/23738871.2016.1157619. ISSN 2373-8871.
• Naver. 남북국시대 [North-South States Period]. Encyclopedia (in Korean). Naver. Archived from the original on 10 January 2014. Retrieved 24 November 2016.
• Neel, Carolyn (2011). "Introduction". World History Encyclopedia. Vol. 1. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-1-85109-930-6.
• Nichols, Deborah L.; Pool, Christopher A. (2012). The Oxford Handbook of Mesoamerican Archaeology. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-999634-6. Archived from the original on 18 March 2024. Retrieved 5 June 2022.
• Ning, Liu (2023). "Literature in the Heyday of the Tang Dynasty". In Liu, Yuejin (ed.). Concise Reader of Chinese Literature History. Springer Nature. ISBN 978-981-99-5814-6.
• Njoku, Raphael Chijioke (2013). The History of Somalia. Greenwood. ISBN 978-0-313-37857-7. Archived from the original on 13 July 2023. Retrieved 13 July 2023.
• Norberg, Matilda Baraibar; Deutsch, Lisa (2023). The Soybean Through World History: Lessons for Sustainable Agrofood Systems. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-000-90347-8.
• Northrup, David R. (2015). "From Divergence to Convergence: Centrifugal and Centripetal Forces in History". In Christian, David (ed.). The Cambridge World History. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-76333-2.
• Nugent, Jeffrey B. (2021). "Refugees in the Mena Region: Historical Overview, Effects and Challenges". In Hakimian, Hassan (ed.). The Routledge Handbook on the Middle East Economy. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-351-59668-8.
• O'Brien, Patrick Karl, ed. (2002). Atlas of World History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-521921-0.
• O'Connell, J. F.; Allen, J.; Williams, M. A. J.; Williams, A. N.; Turney, C. S. M.; Spooner, N. A.; Kamminga, J.; Brown, G.; Cooper, A. (2018). "When Did Homo Sapiens First Reach Southeast Asia and Sahul?". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 115 (34): 8482–8490. Bibcode:2018PNAS..115.8482O. doi:10.1073/pnas.1808385115. PMC 6112744. PMID 30082377.
• O'Rourke, Kevin H.; Williamson, Jeffrey G. (2002). "When Did Globalization Begin?". European Review of Economic History. 6 (1): 23–50. doi:10.1017/S1361491602000023. S2CID 15767303.
• Oreskes, Naomi (2022). "New Nuclear Power Plants Are Unlikely to Stop the Climate Crisis". Scientific American. Archived from the original on 18 November 2023. Retrieved 18 November 2023.
• Osborne, Eric W. (3 July 2020). "The Ulcer of the Mughal Empire: Mughals and Marathas, 1680–1707". Small Wars & Insurgencies. 31 (5): 992, 1005. doi:10.1080/09592318.2020.1764711. ISSN 0959-2318. S2CID 221060782.
• Pääbo, Svante (2003). "The Mosaic That Is Our Genome". In Clayton, Julie; Dennis, Carina (eds.). 50 Years of DNA. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-4039-1479-8.
• Paine, Lincoln P. (2011). "The Promotion of Trade through Buddhist Sanghas". In Andrea, Alfred J. (ed.). World History Encyclopedia. Greenwood Publishing. ISBN 978-1-85109-930-6.
• Paine, Lincoln P. (2013). The Sea and Civilization: A Maritime History of the World. Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-1-4000-4409-2.
• Pettersson E, Lundeberg J, Ahmadian A (2009). "Generations of Sequencing Technologies". Genomics. 93 (2): 105–111. doi:10.1016/j.ygeno.2008.10.003. PMID 18992322.
• Phillips, William (2017). Critical Readings on Global Slavery. Brill Publishers. ISBN 978-90-04-34661-1. Archived from the original on 4 October 2021. Retrieved 17 September 2021.
• Pillalamarri, Akhilesh (2017). "Buddhism and Islam in Asia: A Long and Complicated History". thediplomat.com. The Diplomat. Archived from the original on 23 January 2019. Retrieved 17 September 2021.
• Pollack, Henry (2010). A World Without Ice. Penguin. ISBN 978-1-101-52485-5.
• Posth C, Renaud G, Mittnik A, Drucker DG, Rougier H, Cupillard C, et al. (2016). "Pleistocene Mitochondrial Genomes Suggest a Single Major Dispersal of Non-Africans and a Late Glacial Population Turnover in Europe". Current Biology. 26 (6): 827–833. Bibcode:2016CBio...26..827P. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2016.01.037. hdl:2440/114930. PMID 26853362. S2CID 140098861.
• Price, Simon; Thonemann, Peter (2010). The Birth of Classical Europe: A History from Troy to Augustine. Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-670-02247-2.
• Radivojevic, M; Rehren, T; Kuzmanovic-Cvetkovic, J; Jovanovic, M; Northover, JP (2013). "Tainted Ores and the Rise of Tin Bronzes in Eurasia, c.6500 years ago". Antiquity. 87 (338): 1030–1045. doi:10.1017/S0003598X0004984X. Archived from the original on 19 November 2018. Retrieved 30 September 2023.
• Rael, Ronald (2009). Earth Architecture. Princeton Architectural Press. ISBN 978-1-56898-767-5.
• Reagan, Timothy (2005). Non-Western Educational Traditions: Alternative Approaches to Educational Thought and Practice. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. ISBN 978-0-8058-4857-1. Archived from the original on 10 December 2023. Retrieved 17 May 2023.
• Regulski, Ilona (2016). "The Origins and Early Development of Writing in Egypt". Oxford Handbooks Online. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935413.013.61. ISBN 978-0-19-993541-3. Archived from the original on 31 October 2020. Retrieved 19 April 2020.
• Reich D, Green RE, Kircher M, Krause J, Patterson N, Durand EY, et al. (2010). "Genetic History of an Archaic Hominin Group from Denisova Cave in Siberia". Nature. 468 (7327): 1053–1060. Bibcode:2010Natur.468.1053R. doi:10.1038/nature09710. hdl:10230/25596. PMC 4306417. PMID 21179161.
• Ricklefs, M. C. (2001). A History of Modern Indonesia Since C. 1200. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-4479-9.
• Ritchie, Hannah (2024). "The World Solved Acid Rain. We Can Also Solve Climate Change". Scientific American. Retrieved 23 May 2024.
• Roberts, J. M.; Westad, Odd Arne (2013). The Penguin History of the World (6th ed.). Penguin Books. ISBN 978-1-84614-443-1. Archived from the original on 29 April 2024. Retrieved 25 August 2022.
• Robinson, Andrew (2009). Writing and Script: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-157916-5.
• Roivainen, Eka (2023). "I Gave ChatGPT an IQ Test. Here's What I Discovered". Scientific American. Retrieved 23 May 2024.
• Ropp, Paul S. (2010). China in World History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-979876-6. Archived from the original on 5 October 2023. Retrieved 1 October 2023.
• Rosas, Antionio; Bastir, Markus (2020). "An Assessment of the Late Middle Pleistocene Occipital from Apidima 1 Skull (Greece)". L'Anthropologie. 124 (1): 102745. doi:10.1016/j.anthro.2020.102745. ISSN 0003-5521. S2CID 216223477. Archived from the original on 7 August 2022. Retrieved 17 August 2022.
• Sainsbury, Keith (1986). The Turning Point: Roosevelt, Stalin, Churchill, and Chiang Kai-Shek, 1943: The Moscow, Cairo, and Teheran Conferences. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-285172-7.
• Schoppa, R. Keith (2021). The Twentieth Century: A World History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-049735-4. Archived from the original on 2 December 2023. Retrieved 2 December 2023.
• Schulman, Alex (2011). The Secular Contract: The Politics of Enlightenment. Bloomsbury Publishing USA. ISBN 978-1-4411-8467-2.
• Scott, William; Vare, Paul (2020). Learning, Environment and Sustainable Development: A History of Ideas. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-000-20802-3. Archived from the original on 10 December 2023. Retrieved 3 May 2023.
• Scranton, Philip (2006). "Urgency, Uncertainty, and Innovation: Building Jet Engines in Postwar America". Management & Organizational History. 1 (2): 131. doi:10.1177/1744935906064096. ISSN 1744-9359. S2CID 143813033. Archived from the original on 12 September 2022. Retrieved 15 September 2022.
• Seow, Victor (3 July 2022). "A Tradition of Invention: The Paradox of Glorifying Past Technological Breakthroughs". East Asian Science, Technology and Society. 16 (3): 349–366. doi:10.1080/18752160.2022.2095103.
• Serle, Percival (1949). "Tasman, Abel". Dictionary of Australian Biography. Angus & Robertson.
• Shady Solis, Ruth; Haas, Jonathan; Creamer, Winifred (2001). "Dating Caral, a Preceramic Site in the Supe Valley on the Central Coast of Peru". Science. 292 (5517): 723–726. Bibcode:2001Sci...292..723S. doi:10.1126/science.1059519. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 11326098. S2CID 10172918. Archived from the original on 12 November 2022. Retrieved 13 November 2022.
• Shaw, Stanford (1976). History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey: Volume I: Empire of the Gazis: The Rise and Decline of the Ottoman Empire 1280–1808. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-29163-7.
• Shelley, Fred M. (2022). Examining Education Around the World. Bloomsbury Publishing USA. ISBN 978-1-4408-6448-3. Archived from the original on 10 December 2023. Retrieved 31 August 2023.
• Short, John R. (1987). An Introduction to Urban Geography. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-7102-0372-4. Archived from the original on 20 March 2022. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
• Showalter, Dennis E.; Royde-Smith, John Graham (2024). "World War I – Casualties, Armistice, Legacy". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 9 August 2024.
• Siler, Julia Flynn (2012). Lost Kingdom: Hawaii's Last Queen, the Sugar Kings, and America's First Imperial Adventure. Grove/Atlantic, Inc. ISBN 978-0-8021-9488-6. Archived from the original on 18 March 2024. Retrieved 3 July 2023.
• Simmons, Beth A. (2009). Mobilizing for Human Rights: International Law in Domestic Politics. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1139483483.
• Singh, Patwant (2000). The Sikhs. Knopf. ISBN 0-375-40728-6.
• Singh, Upinder (2008). A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. Pearson Education. ISBN 978-81-317-1120-0. Archived from the original on 18 March 2024. Retrieved 25 October 2022.
• Spielvogel, Jackson J. (2016). Western Civilization: A Brief History, Volume I: To 1715 (Cengage Learning ed.). Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-1-305-63347-6.
• Spoor, Fred; Gunz, Philipp; Neubauer, Simon; Stelzer, Stefanie; Scott, Nadia; Kwekason, Amandus; Dean, M. Christopher (2015). "Reconstructed Homo Habilis Type OH 7 Suggests Deep-rooted Species Diversity in Early Homo". Nature. 519 (7541): 83–86. Bibcode:2015Natur.519...83S. doi:10.1038/nature14224. PMID 25739632. S2CID 4470282.
• Springer Nature Limited (2023). The Statesman's Yearbook 2024: The Politics, Cultures and Economies of the World. Springer Nature Limited. ISBN 978-1-349-96076-7.
• Stearns, Peter N. (2001). The Encyclopedia of World History: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern, Chronologically Arranged. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-395-65237-4.
• Stearns, Peter N. (2008). World History in Documents: A Comparative Reader. NYU Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-4101-6.
• Stearns, Peter N. (2010). World History: The Basics. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-88817-5.
• Stearns, Peter N.; Langer, William L., eds. (2001). The Encyclopedia of World History: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern, Chronologically Arranged (6th ed.). Houghton Mifflin Company. ISBN 978-0-395-65237-4.
• Stein, Burton (2010). A History of India. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-4443-2351-1. Archived from the original on 12 July 2023. Retrieved 21 July 2022.
• Stephens, Lucas; Fuller, Dorian; Boivin, Nicole; Rick, Torben; Gauthier, Nicolas; Kay, Andrea; Marwick, Ben; Armstrong, Chelsey Geralda; Barton, C. Michael (2019). "Archaeological Assessment Reveals Earth's Early Transformation Through Land Use". Science. 365 (6456): 897–902. Bibcode:2019Sci...365..897S. doi:10.1126/science.aax1192. hdl:10150/634688. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 31467217. S2CID 201674203.
• Stevenson, Tom (2020). "In the Grey Zone". London Review of Books. Vol. 42, no. 20. pp. 41–43. Archived from the original on 29 July 2022. Retrieved 24 July 2022.
• Strait, David (2010). "The Evolutionary History of the Australopiths". Evolution: Education and Outreach. 3 (3): 341. doi:10.1007/s12052-010-0249-6. ISSN 1936-6434. S2CID 31979188.
• Strauss, Barry (2005). The Battle of Salamis: The Naval Encounter That Saved Greece – and Western Civilization. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-7453-1. Archived from the original on 23 June 2022. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
• Stutz, Aaron Jonas (2018). "Paleolithic". In Trevathan, Wenda; Cartmill, Matt; Dufour, Darna; Larsen, Clark (eds.). The International Encyclopedia of Biological Anthropology. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. pp. 1–9. doi:10.1002/9781118584538.ieba0363. ISBN 978-1-118-58442-2. S2CID 240083827. Archived from the original on 1 August 2022. Retrieved 4 August 2022.
• Suny, Ronald Grigor (2015). "They Can Live in the Desert but Nowhere Else": A History of the Armenian Genocide. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-6558-1.
• Svard, Lois (2023). The Musical Brain: What Students, Teachers, and Performers Need to Know. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-758417-0.
• Taylor, Keith (1976). "The Rise of Đại Việt and the Establishment of Thăng-long". In Hall, Kenneth R.; Whitmore, John K. (eds.). Explorations in Early Southeast Asian History: The Origins of Southeast Asian Statecraft. University of Michigan Press. doi:10.3998/mpub.19404. ISBN 978-0-89148-011-2. JSTOR 10.3998/mpub.19404. S2CID 237194486. Archived from the original on 21 February 2023. Retrieved 31 December 2022.
• The Association of Korean History Teachers (2005). Korea Through the Ages; Volume One: Ancient. The Center for Information on Korean Culture, The Academy of Korean Studies. ISBN 978-89-7105-545-8.
• The Economist (2023). "Large, Creative AI Models Will Transform Lives and Labour Markets". The Economist. ISSN 0013-0613. Archived from the original on 12 December 2023. Retrieved 13 December 2023.
• The Economist (2023a). "Progress on Climate Change Has Been Too Slow. But It's Been Real". The Economist. ISSN 0013-0613. Archived from the original on 2 December 2023. Retrieved 2 December 2023.
• Tignor, Robert; Adelman, Jeremy; Brown, Peter; Elman, Benjamin; Liu, Xinru; Pittman, Holly; Shaw, Brent (2014). Worlds Together, Worlds Apart, Volume One: Beginnings Through the 15th Century (4th ed.). W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-92208-0.
• Tiliouine, Habib; Renima, Ahmed; Estes, Richard J. (2016). "The Islamic Golden Age: A Story of the Triumph of the Islamic Civilization". In Tiliouine, Habib; Estes, Richard J. (eds.). The State of Social Progress of Islamic Societies: Social, Economic, Political, and Ideological Challenges. Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-24774-8.
• Tindall, George; Shi, David (2010). America: A Narrative History. Vol. 1 (8th ed.). Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-93406-9.
• Tor, Deborah (2009). "The Islamization of Central Asia in the Sāmānid Era and the Reshaping of the Muslim World". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. 72 (2). Cambridge University Press: 279–299. doi:10.1017/S0041977X09000524. JSTOR 40379005. S2CID 153554938.
• Totman, Conrad (2002). A History of Japan. Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-2359-4. Archived from the original on 16 January 2024. Retrieved 22 July 2022.
• Tozzo, Brandon (2017). American Hegemony after the Great Recession: A Transformation in World Order. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-137-57539-5.
• Trimmingham, John Spencer (1952). Islam in Ethiopia. Frank Cass and Company. ISBN 0-7146-1731-8.
• Trubek, Anne (2016). The History and Uncertain Future of Handwriting. Bloomsbury Publishing USA. ISBN 978-1-62040-216-0.
• Uhlig, Siegbert; Appleyard, David; Bausi, Alessandro; Hahn, Wolfgang; Kaplan, Steven, eds. (2017). Ethiopia: History, Culture and Challenges. LIT Verlag. ISBN 978-3-643-90892-6.
• Urata, Shūjirō; Kuroda, Kazuo; Tonegawa, Yoshiko (2022). Sustainable Development Disciplines for Humanity: Breaking Down the 5Ps—People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace, and Partnerships. Springer Nature Singapore. ISBN 978-981-19-4859-6. Archived from the original on 10 December 2023. Retrieved 3 May 2023.
• Vásquez, Ian (2001). "Ending Mass Poverty". Cato Institute. Retrieved 23 May 2024.
• Villmoare, Brian; Kimbel, William; Seyoum, Chalachew; Campisano, Christopher; DiMaggio, Erin; Rowan, John; et al. (2015). "Paleoanthropology. Early Homo at 2.8 Ma from Ledi-Geraru, Afar, Ethiopia". Science. 347 (6228): 1352–1355. Bibcode:2015Sci...347.1352V. doi:10.1126/science.aaa1343. PMID 25739410.
• Weber, Gerhard W.; Hershkovitz, Israel; Gunz, Philipp; Neubauer, Simon; Ayalon, Avner; Latimer, Bruce; Bar-Matthews, Miryam; Yasur, Gal; Barzilai, Omry; May, Hila (2020). "Before the Massive Modern Human Dispersal into Eurasia: A 55,000-year-old Partial Cranium from Manot Cave, Israel". Quaternary International. 551: 29–39. Bibcode:2020QuInt.551...29W. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2019.10.009. ISSN 1040-6182. S2CID 210628420. Archived from the original on 24 January 2022. Retrieved 17 August 2022.
• Wengrow, David (2011). "The Invention of Writing in Egypt". Before the Pyramids: Origin of Egyptian Civilization. Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago.
• Wheeler, Mary E. (1971). "Empires in Conflict and Cooperation: The "Bostonians" and the Russian-American Company". Pacific Historical Review. 40 (4): 441. doi:10.2307/3637703. JSTOR 3637703.
• Whitecotton, Joseph W. (1977). The Zapotecs: Princes, Priests, and Peasants. University of Oklahoma Press.
• Whitfield, Susan (2004). The Silk Road: Trade, Travel, War, and Faith. Serendia Publications, Inc. ISBN 978-1-932476-13-2.
• Wiesner, Merry E. (2015). A Concise History of the World. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-02837-1.
• Wiesner-Hanks, Merry E. (2021). What is Early Modern History?. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-5095-4058-7.
• Williams, Stephen; Friell, Gerard (2005). Theodosius: The Empire at Bay. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-78262-7. Archived from the original on 30 May 2022. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
• Wolfe, Audra J. (2013). Competing with the Soviets: Science, Technology, and the State in Cold War America. JHU Press. ISBN 978-1-4214-0901-6. Archived from the original on 18 March 2024. Retrieved 13 September 2022.
• Wolpert, Stanley (1997). A New History of India (5th ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-510030-1.
• Woods, Thomas E.; Canizares, Antonio (2012). How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization (Reprint ed.). Regnery History. ISBN 978-1-59698-328-1. Archived from the original on 15 March 2023. Retrieved 8 December 2014.
• Wragg-Sykes, Rebecca (2016). "Humans Evolve". Big History: Our Incredible Journey, from Big Bang to Now. Dorling Kindersley. ISBN 978-0-241-22590-5. Archived from the original on 2 May 2024. Retrieved 4 May 2024.
• Xue, Zongzheng (1992). A History of Turks. Chinese Social Sciences Press.
• Yoffee, Norman, ed. (2015). Early Cities in Comparative Perspective, 4000 BCE–1200 CE. The Cambridge World History. Vol. 3. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-19008-4. Archived from the original on 14 October 2023. Retrieved 9 October 2023.
• Yong E (2011). "Mosaic Humans, the Hybrid Species". New Scientist. 211 (2823): 34–38. Bibcode:2011NewSc.211...34Y. doi:10.1016/S0262-4079(11)61839-3.
• Zhu Z, Dennell R, Huang W, Wu Y, Qiu S, Yang S, et al. (2018). "Hominin Occupation of the Chinese Loess Plateau Since About 2.1 million Years Ago". Nature. 559 (7715): 608–612. Bibcode:2018Natur.559..608Z. doi:10.1038/s41586-018-0299-4. PMID 29995848. S2CID 49670311.
• Ṭabīb, Rashīd al-Dīn; Faḍlallāh, Rašīd-ad-Dīn; Nishapuri, Zahir al-Din; Nīšāpūrī, Ẓahīr-ad-Dīn (2001). Bosworth, Clifford Edmund (ed.). The History of the Seljuq Turks from the Jāmiʻ Al-tawārīkh: An Ilkhanid Adaptation of the Saljūq-nāma of Ẓahīr Al-Dīn Nīshāpūrī. Translated by Luther, Kenneth Allin. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-7007-1342-4. Archived from the original on 25 August 2023. Retrieved 25 August 2023.