Jump to content

Groundhog

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Marmota monax)
"Woodchuck" redirects here. For other uses, see Groundhog (disambiguation) and Woodchuck (disambiguation).
"Whistle Pig" redirects here. For the whiskey distillery, see WhistlePig.

Groundhog
Groundhog at Laval University campus, Quebec, Canada
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Sciuridae
Genus: Marmota
Species:
M. monax
Binomial name
Marmota monax
Subspecies
Groundhog range in North America
Synonyms

Mus monax Linnaeus, 1758
Arctomys monax (Linnaeus, 1758)

The groundhog (Marmota monax), also known as the woodchuck, is a rodent of the family Sciuridae, belonging to the group of large ground squirrels known as marmots.[2] A lowland creature of North America, it is found through much of the Eastern United States, across Canada and into Alaska.[3] It was first scientifically described by Carl Linnaeus in 1758.[4]

The groundhog plays an important role maintaining healthy soil in woodlands and plains; as such, the species is considered a crucial habitat engineer.[5][6][7] The groundhog is an extremely intelligent animal, forming complex social networks and capable of understanding social behavior, forming kinship with its young, understanding and communicating threats through whistling, and working cooperatively to solve tasks such as burrowing.[8][9]

Etymology

[edit]

Common names for the groundhog include chuck, wood-shock, groundpig, whistle-pig,[10] whistler, thickwood badger, Canada marmot, monax, moonack, weenusk, red monk,[11]: 300  land beaver,[12] and, among French Canadians in eastern Canada, siffleux.[13] The name "thickwood badger" was given in the Northwest to distinguish the animal from the prairie badger. Monax (Móonack) is an Algonquian name of the woodchuck, which means "digger" (cf. Lenape monachgeu).[14][11]: 300–301  Young groundhogs may be called chucklings.[15]: 66 

The etymology of the name woodchuck is unrelated to wood or any sense of chucking. It stems from an Algonquian (possibly Narragansett) name for the animal, wuchak.[16] The similarity between the words has led to the popular tongue-twister:[17]

How much wood would a woodchuck chuck
if a woodchuck could chuck wood?
A woodchuck would chuck all the wood he could
if a woodchuck could chuck wood!

Description

[edit]
Groundhog displaying its incisors

The groundhog is by far the largest sciurid in its geographical range, except in British Columbia where its range may abut that of its somewhat larger cousin, the hoary marmot. Adults may measure from 41.8 to 68.5 cm (16+7⁄16 to 26+15⁄16 in) in total length, including a tail of 9.5 to 18.7 cm (3+3⁄4 to 7+3⁄8 in).[18][19][20] Weights of adult groundhogs typically fall between 2 and 6.3 kg (4 lb 7 oz and 13 lb 14 oz).[20][21][22]

Male groundhogs are slightly larger than females on average and, like all marmots, they are considerably heavier during autumn (when engaged in autumn hyperphagia) than when they emerge from hibernation in spring. Adult males average year-around weight 3.83 kg (8 lb 7 oz), with spring to fall average weights of 3.1 to 5.07 kg (6 lb 13 oz to 11 lb 3 oz) while females average 3.53 kg (7 lb 13 oz), with spring to fall averages of 3.08 to 4.8 kg (6 lb 13 oz to 10 lb 9 oz).[18][23] Seasonal weight changes reflect circannual deposition and use of fat. Groundhogs attain progressively higher weights each year for the first two or three years, after which weight plateaus.[18]

Groundhogs have four incisors, which grow 1.5 millimetres (1⁄16 in) per week. Constant usage wears them down by about that much each week.[24] Unlike the incisors of many other rodents, the incisors of groundhogs are white to ivory-white.[25][15]: 20  Groundhogs are well-adapted for digging, with powerful, short legs and broad, long claws. The groundhog's tail is shorter than that of other Sciuridae—only about one-fourth of body length.

Distribution and habitat

[edit]

The groundhog dwells in lowland habitats, unlike other marmots that live in rocky and mountainous areas. Marmota monax has a wide geographic range. The groundhog prefers open country and the edges of woodland, being rarely found far from a burrow entrance.[26] It can typically be found in small woodlots, low-elevation forests, fields and pastures, and hedgerows. It constructs dens in well-drained soil, and most groundhogs have summer and winter dens. Human activity has increased food access and abundance, allowing M. monax to thrive.[27]

Behavior

[edit]
A motionless individual, alert to danger, will whistle when alarmed to warn other groundhogs.

W.J. Schoonmaker reports that groundhogs may hide when they see, smell, or hear an observer.[15]: 41–43  Marmot researcher Ken Armitage states that the social biology of the groundhog is poorly studied.[28] Despite their heavy-bodied appearance, groundhogs are accomplished swimmers and occasionally climb trees when escaping predators or when they want to survey their surroundings.[29] They prefer to retreat to their burrows when threatened; if the burrow is invaded, the groundhog tenaciously defends itself with its two large incisors and front claws. Groundhogs are generally agonistic and territorial toward conspecifics and may skirmish to establish dominance.[30][15]: 93  Outside their burrow, individuals are alert when not actively feeding. It is common to see one or more nearly motionless individuals standing erect on their hind feet watching for danger. When alarmed, they use a high-pitched whistle to warn the rest of the colony, hence the name "whistle-pig".[31][32] Groundhogs may squeal when fighting, seriously injured, or caught by a predator.[32] Other vocalizations include low barks and a sound produced by grinding their teeth.[32] David P. Barash wrote that he witnessed only two occasions of upright play-fighting among woodchucks and that the upright posture of play-fighting involves sustained physical contact between individuals that may require a degree of social tolerance virtually unknown in M. monax. Alternatively, upright play-fighting may be a part of the woodchuck's behavioral repertoire that rarely is shown because of physical spacing and/or low social tolerance.[33]: 97 

Diet

[edit]
Clover is a preferred food source for groundhogs.
Eating wild vegetation

Mostly herbivorous, groundhogs eat primarily wild grasses and other vegetation, including berries, bark, leaves, and agricultural crops, when available.[30][34] In early spring, dandelion and coltsfoot are important groundhog food items. Some additional foods include sheep sorrel, timothy-grass, buttercup, persicaria, agrimony, red and black raspberries, mulberries, buckwheat, plantain, wild lettuce, all varieties of clover, and alfalfa. Groundhogs also occasionally eat small animals, such as grubs, grasshoppers, snails, and even bird eggs and baby birds, but are not as omnivorous as many other Sciuridae.[34][35]

An adult groundhog can eat more than a pound of vegetation daily.[36] In early June, woodchucks' metabolism slows, and while their food intake decreases, their weight increases by as much as 100% as they produce fat deposits to sustain them during hibernation and late winter.[37] Instead of storing food, groundhogs stuff themselves to survive the winter without eating.[38] Thought not to drink water, groundhogs are reported to obtain needed liquids from the juices of food-plants, aided by their sprinkling with rain or dew.[15]: 85 [39][11]: 308 

Burrows

[edit]
Groundhog gathering nesting material for its warm burrow

Groundhogs are excellent burrowers, using burrows for sleeping, rearing young, and hibernating. Groundhog burrows usually have two to five entrances, providing groundhogs their primary means of escape from predators. The volume of earth removed from groundhog burrows in one study averaged 6 cubic feet (0.17 m3) per den. The longest burrow measured 24 feet (7.3 m) plus two short side galleries.[15]: 108–109 

Though groundhogs are the most solitary of the marmots, several individuals may occupy the same burrow.

Burrows can pose a serious threat to agricultural and residential development by damaging farm machinery and even undermining building foundations.[31] In a June 7, 2009, Humane Society of the United States article, "How to Humanely Chuck a Woodchuck Out of Your Yard" by John Griffin, director of Humane Wildlife Services, stated you would have to have a lot of woodchucks working over a lot of years to create tunnel systems that would pose any risk to a structure.[citation needed]

The burrow is used for safety, retreat in bad weather, hibernating, sleeping, love nest, and nursery. In addition to the nest, there is an excrement chamber. The hibernation or nest chamber is lined with dead leaves and dried grasses.[40] The nest chamber may be about twenty inches to three feet (51–91 cm) below ground surface. It is about 16 inches (41 cm) wide and 14 inches (36 cm) high. There are typically two burrow openings or holes. One is the main entrance, the other a spy hole. Description of the length of the burrow often includes side galleries. Excluding side galleries, Schoonmaker reports the longest was 24 feet (7.3 m), and the average length of eleven dens was 14 feet (4.3 m).[15]: 104–105  W. H. Fisher investigated nine burrows, finding the deepest point 49 inches (120 cm) down. The longest, including side galleries, was 47 ft 11.5 in (14.62 m).[11]: 306  Numbers of burrows per individual groundhog decrease with urbanization.[41][42]

Bachman mentioned that when the young groundhogs are a few months old, they prepare for separation, digging a number of holes in the area of their early home. Some of these holes were only a few feet deep and never occupied, but the numerous burrows gave the impression that groundhogs live in communities.[11]: 318 

Abandoned groundhog burrows benefit many other species by providing shelter. They are used by cottontail rabbits, raccoons, foxes, river otters, eastern chipmunks, and a wide variety of small mammals, snakes, and birds.[43]

Hibernation

[edit]
Two baby groundhogs

Groundhogs are one of the few species that enter into true hibernation, and often build a separate "winter burrow" for this purpose. This burrow is usually in a wooded or brushy area and is dug below the frost line and remains at a stable temperature well above freezing during the winter months. In most areas, groundhogs hibernate from October to March or April, but in more temperate areas, they may hibernate as little as three months.[44] Groundhogs hibernate longer in northern latitudes than southern latitudes.[45][46] To survive the winter, they are at their maximum weight shortly before entering hibernation.[47] When the groundhog enters hibernation, there is a drop in body temperature to as low as 35 degrees Fahrenheit (2 °C), heart rate falls to 4–10 beats per minute and breathing rate falls to one breath every six minutes.[48] During hibernation, they experience periods of torpor and arousal.[49] Hibernating woodchucks lose as much as half their body weight by February.[50] They emerge from hibernation with some remaining body fat to live on until the warmer spring weather produces abundant plant materials for food.[47] Males emerge from hibernation before females.[51][15]: 50  Groundhogs are mostly diurnal and are often active early in the morning or late afternoon.[52]

Reproduction

[edit]

Groundhogs are considered the most solitary of the marmot species. They live in aggregations, and their social organization also varies across populations. Groundhogs do not form stable, long-term pair-bonds, and during mating season male-female interactions are limited to copulation. In Ohio, adult males and females associate with each other throughout the year and often from year to year.[53][18] Usually groundhogs breed in their second year, but a small proportion may breed in their first. The breeding season extends from early March to mid- or late April, after hibernation. Woodchucks are polygynous[27] but only alpine and woodchuck marmot females have been shown to mate with multiple males.[53] A mated pair remains in the same den throughout the 31- to 32-day gestation period.[54] As birth of the young approaches in April or May, the male leaves the den. One litter is produced annually. Female woodchucks give birth to one to nine offspring, with most litters ranging between 3 and 5 pups.[27] Groundhog mothers introduce their young to the wild once their fur is grown in and they can see. At this time, if at all, the father groundhog comes back to the family.[11]: 316  By the end of August, the family breaks up; or at least, the larger number scatter, to burrow on their own.[11]: 318 

Health and mortality

[edit]
A Groundhog in northern Ontario, Canada on high alert for predators.
A Groundhog in northern Ontario, Canada on high alert for predators.

In the wild, groundhogs can live up to six years with two or three being the average life expectancy. In captivity, groundhogs reportedly live up to 14 years. Human development often leaves vacant space near secondary forests, which are indigenous to groundhogs, which ensures that groundhogs in well-developed areas are nearly free of predators other than humans (through various forms of pest control or roadkills) or mid-to-large sized dogs.[55]

Occasionally, woodchucks may suffer from parasitism, and a woodchuck may die from infestation or from bacteria transmitted by vectors.[56] In areas of intensive agriculture and the dairying regions of the state of Wisconsin, particularly in southern areas, the woodchuck had been almost extirpated by 1950.[57]: 124  Jackson (1961) suggested that exaggerated reports of damage done by the woodchuck led to excessive culling, substantially reducing its numbers in the state.

In some areas woodchucks are important game animals and are killed regularly for sport, food, or fur. In Kentucky, an estimated 267,500 M. monax were taken annually from 1964 to 1971.[58]: 143  Woodchucks had protected status in the state of Wisconsin[59] until 2017.[60] Woodchuck numbers appear to have decreased in Illinois.[61]

Natural predators

[edit]
Groundhogs can climb trees to escape predators.

Wild predators of adult groundhogs in most of eastern North America include coyotes, badgers,[62] bobcats, and foxes (largely red fox). Many of these predators are successful stealth stalkers that catch groundhogs by surprise before they can escape to their burrows; badgers likely hunt them by digging them out from their burrows. Coyotes in particular are sizable enough to overpower any groundhog with the latter being the third most significant prey species per a statewide study in Pennsylvania.[63][64][65][66][67][68]

Large predators such as gray wolf and eastern cougar are likely extirpated in the east but still may hunt groundhogs on occasion in Canada.[69][70] Golden eagles can also prey on adult groundhogs, but seldom occur in the same range or in the same habitats as this marmot. Likewise, great horned owls can reportedly, per Bent (1938), prey upon groundhogs but rarely do so, given the temporal differences in their behaviors.[71][72]

Young groundhogs (usually those less than a couple months in age) may also be taken by the American mink, and perhaps other small mustelids, cats, timber rattlesnakes, and hawks. Red-tailed hawks can take groundhogs at least of up to the size of yearling juveniles, and northern goshawks can take them up to perhaps weak emergent-adult groundhogs in the Spring.[18][20][73][74][75]

Beyond their large size, groundhogs have several successful anti-predator behaviors, usually retreating to the safety of their burrow which most predators will not attempt to enter, but also being ready to defend themselves with their sharp claws and large incisors. They can also scale trees to escape a threat.[58]: 142–143 [76][failed verification][41][failed verification]

Relationship with humans

[edit]

Both their diet and their habit of burrowing make groundhogs serious nuisance animals around farms and gardens. They will eat many commonly grown vegetables. Extensive burrowing can undermine foundations.[31]

Very often, the dens of groundhogs provide homes for other animals, including skunks, red foxes, and cottontail rabbits. Foxes and skunks feed upon field mice, grasshoppers, beetles, and other creatures that destroy farm crops. In aiding these animals, the groundhog indirectly helps the farmer. In addition to providing homes for itself and other animals, the groundhog aids in soil improvement by bringing subsoil to the surface. The groundhog is also a valuable game animal and is considered a difficult sport when hunted in a fair manner.[15]: 129–131  In some parts of the U.S., they have been eaten.[77]

A report in 1883 by the New Hampshire Legislative Woodchuck Committee describes the groundhog's objectionable character:[11]: 328 [78]

The woodchuck, despite its deformities both of mind and body, possesses some of the amenities of a higher civilization. It cleans its face after the manner of the squirrels, and licks its fur after the manner of a cat. Your committee is too wise, however, to be deceived by this purely superficial observation of better habits. Contemporaneous with the ark, the woodchuck has not made any material progress in social science, and it is now too late to reform the wayward sinner. The average age of the woodchuck is too long to please your committee.... The woodchuck is not only a nuisance, but also a bore. It burrows beneath the soil, and then chuckles to see a mowing machine, man and all, slump into one of these holes and disappear....

The committee concludes that, "a small bounty will prove of incalculable good; at all events, even as an experiment, it is certainly worth trying; therefore your committee would respectfully recommend that the accompanying bill be passed."[15]: 133 

Groundhogs may be raised in captivity, but their aggressive nature can pose problems. Doug Schwartz, a zookeeper and groundhog trainer at the Staten Island Zoo, has been quoted as saying "They're known for their aggression, so you're starting from a hard place. His natural impulse is to kill 'em all and let God sort 'em out. You have to work to produce the sweet and cuddly."[79] Groundhogs cared for in wildlife rehabilitation that survive but cannot be returned to the wild may remain with their caregivers and become educational ambassadors.[80][81][82]

In the United States and Canada, the yearly Groundhog Day celebration on February 2 has given the groundhog recognition and popularity. The most popularly known of these groundhogs are Punxsutawney Phil, Wiarton Willie, Shubenacadie Sam, Jimmy the Groundhog, Dunkirk Dave, and Staten Island Chuck kept as part of Groundhog Day festivities in Punxsutawney, Pennsylvania; Wiarton, Ontario; Sun Prairie, Wisconsin; Dunkirk, New York; and Staten Island respectively. The 1993 comedy film Groundhog Day references several events related to Groundhog Day, and portrays both Punxsutawney Phil himself, and the annual Groundhog Day ceremony. Famous Southern groundhogs include General Beauregard Lee, based at Dauset Trails Nature Center outside Atlanta, Georgia.[83]

Groundhogs are used in medical research on hepatitis B-induced liver cancer. A percentage of the woodchuck population is infected with the woodchuck hepatitis virus (WHV), which is similar to human hepatitis B virus. Humans cannot contract hepatitis from woodchucks with WHV, but the virus and its effects on the liver make the woodchuck the best available animal for the study of viral hepatitis in humans. The only other animal model for hepatitis B virus studies is the chimpanzee, an endangered species.[84] Woodchucks are also used in biomedical research investigating metabolic function, obesity, energy balance, the endocrine system, reproduction, neurology, cardiovascular disease, cerebrovascular disease, and neoplastic disease.[85] Researching the hibernation patterns of groundhogs may lead to benefits for humans, including lowering of the heart rate in complicated surgical procedures.[86]

Groundhog burrows have revealed at least two archaeological sites, the Ufferman Site in the U.S. state of Ohio[87] and Meadowcroft Rockshelter in Pennsylvania. Archaeologists have never excavated the Ufferman Site, but the activities of local groundhogs have revealed numerous artifacts. They favor the loose soil of the esker at the site lies, and their burrow digging has brought many objects to the surface: human and animal bones, pottery, and bits of stone.[87] Woodchuck remains were found in the Indian mounds at Aztalan, Jefferson County, Wisconsin.[57]: 124 

Robert Frost's poem "A Drumlin Woodchuck" uses the imagery of a groundhog dug into a small ridge as a metaphor for his emotional reticence.[88]

  • Daughter of a Lejunior, Kentucky, coal miner with her pet groundhog (1946)
    Daughter of a Lejunior, Kentucky, coal miner with her pet groundhog (1946)
  • Close encounter with a photographer at Sheldon Marsh State Nature Preserve, Ohio
    Close encounter with a photographer at Sheldon Marsh State Nature Preserve, Ohio

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Cassola, F. (2017) [errata version of 2016 assessment]. "Marmota monax". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2016: e.T42458A115189992. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T42458A22257685.en. Retrieved February 19, 2022.
  2. ^ Thorington, R.W. Jr; Hoffman, R.S. (2005). "Family Sciuridae". In Wilson, D.E.; Reeder, D.M (eds.). Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 802. ISBN 978-0-8018-8221-0. OCLC 62265494.
  3. ^ "Marmota monax, Woodchuck". North American Mammals. Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History. Archived from the original on March 25, 2018. Retrieved February 20, 2018.
  4. ^ Linné, Carl von (1758). Systema naturae per regna tria naturae. Vol. 1 (10 ed.). Impensis Direct. Laurentii Salvii. p. 60. Archived from the original on March 8, 2021. Retrieved January 29, 2018 – via Biodiversity Heritage Library.
  5. ^ Meier, Paul T. (December 1, 1992). "Social organization of woodchucks (Marmota monax)". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 31 (6): 393–400. Bibcode:1992BEcoS..31..393M. doi:10.1007/BF00170606. S2CID 44244749. Archived from the original on May 10, 2022. Retrieved May 18, 2021 – via Springer Link.
  6. ^ Pustilnik, Jeremy D.; Searle, Jeremy B.; Curtis, Paul D. (2021). "The effects of red fox scent on winter activity patterns of suburban wildlife: evaluating predator-prey interactions and the importance of groundhog burrows in promoting biodiversity". Urban Ecosystems. 24 (3): 529–547. Bibcode:2021UrbEc..24..529P. doi:10.1007/s11252-020-01056-5. S2CID 224867974. Archived from the original on May 10, 2022. Retrieved May 18, 2021 – via Springer Link.
  7. ^ Moore, Alexis Lee; Butcher, Michael (May 18, 2011). "Functional specialization in the forelimbs of two digging mammals: the American badger (Taxidea taxus) and groundhog (Marmota monax)". The FASEB Journal. 25 (S1): 867.12. doi:10.1096/fasebj.25.1_supplement.867.12. S2CID 87167021.
  8. ^ Maher, Christine R. (2009). "Genetic Relatedness and Space Use in a Behaviorally Flexible Species of Marmot, the Woodchuck (Marmota monax)" (PDF). Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 63 (6): 857–868. Bibcode:2009BEcoS..63..857M. doi:10.1007/s00265-009-0726-5. JSTOR 40295409. S2CID 20892108. Archived from the original on May 10, 2022. Retrieved May 29, 2021.
  9. ^ Daniel, Janice C.; Blumstein, Daniel T. (1998). "A test of the acoustic adaptation hypothesis in four species of marmots" (PDF). Animal Behaviour. 56 (6). Department of Systematics and Ecology, University of Kansas: The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour: 1517–1528. doi:10.1006/anbe.1998.0929. PMID 9933550. S2CID 37133587. Archived (PDF) from the original on June 2, 2021. Retrieved May 29, 2021.
  10. ^ "Marmota monax". North American Mammals. Smithsonian Institution. Archived from the original on January 22, 2016. Retrieved February 1, 2015.
  11. ^ a b c d e f g h Seton, Ernest Thompson (1928). Lives of Game Animals. Vol. IV. Doubleday, Doran & Company.
  12. ^ Keck, Nina (December 17, 2020). "Where Do The Terms 'Woodchuck' And 'Flatlander' Come From?". www.vpr.org. Archived from the original on January 25, 2021. Retrieved February 2, 2021.
  13. ^ "La marmotte commune". Canadian Wildlife Federation - Faune et flore du pays (in French). Archived from the original on August 5, 2018.
  14. ^ Chamberlain, Alexander F. (November 22, 2018). "Algonkian Words in American English: A Study in the Contact of the White Man and the Indian". The Journal of American Folklore. 15 (59): 240–267. doi:10.2307/533199. JSTOR 533199.
  15. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Schoonmaker, W.J. (1966). The World of the Woodchuck. J.B. Lippincott. ISBN 978-1135544836.
  16. ^ "Marmota monax: Woodchuck". animaldiversity.com. Archived from the original on February 3, 2015. Retrieved February 24, 2015.
  17. ^ "Lyrics and Words for Children's Nursery Rhymes and Songs". BusSongs.com. Archived from the original on July 26, 2011. Retrieved September 15, 2011.
  18. ^ a b c d e Kwiecinski, Gary G. (December 4, 1998). "Marmota monax". Mammalian Species (591): 1–8. doi:10.2307/3504364. JSTOR 3504364. S2CID 253945560.
  19. ^ Schwartz, C. W.; Schwartz, E. R. (2001). The wild mammals of Missouri. University of Missouri Press.
  20. ^ a b c Charles Fergus (2003). Wildlife of Virginia and Maryland and Washington, D.C. Stackpole Books. p. 45. ISBN 978-0811728218.
  21. ^ Ferron, J.; Ouellet, J. P. (1991). "Physical and behavioral postnatal development of woodchucks (Marmota monax)". Canadian Journal of Zoology. 69 (4): 1040–1047. doi:10.1139/z91-149.
  22. ^ Couser, W.; Sargent, P.; Brownhill, L. E.; Benirschke, K. (1963). "The somatic chromosomes of the Northeastern American woodchuck, Marmota monax". Cytologia. 28 (1): 108–111. doi:10.1508/cytologia.28.108. S2CID 84875225.
  23. ^ "Woodchuck, Marmota monax", North Carolina Wild, Wildlife Profiles
  24. ^ Leon M. Lederman Science Education Center. "Woodchuck". Fermilab Flora and Fauna Virtual Exhibit. Archived from the original on August 9, 2017. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
  25. ^ "Woodchuck (Groundhog) -Marmota monax", Ohio DNR, ODNR Division of WILDLIFE
  26. ^ Grizzell, Roy A. (April 1955). "A Study of the Southern Woodchuck, Marmota monax monax". American Midland Naturalist. 53 (2): 257–293. doi:10.2307/2422068. JSTOR 2422068.
  27. ^ a b c "Marmota monax (woodchuck)". Animal Diversity Web. Archived from the original on February 20, 2018. Retrieved February 20, 2018.
  28. ^ Special feature "The Study of Groundhogs: A Real Life Look at Marmots", Movie "Groundhog Day" 15th Anniversary Edition.
  29. ^ Chapman, J. A.; Feldhammer, G. A. (1982). Wild Mammals of North America, Biology, Management, Economics. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0801823536.
  30. ^ a b Whitaker, John O; Hamilton, W J. (1998). Mammals of the Eastern United States. Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-3475-0.
  31. ^ a b c Light, Jessica E. "Animal Diversity Web: Marmota monax". University of Michigan Museum of Zoology. Archived from the original on May 18, 2011. Retrieved July 14, 2009.
  32. ^ a b c Hinterland Who's Who ("Canadian Wildlife Service: Mammals: Woodchuck"). Hww.ca. Retrieved on September 15, 2011.
  33. ^ Barash, David P. (1989). Marmots: social behavior and ecology. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-1534-8.
  34. ^ a b "Marmota monax (Woodchuck)". Animal Diversity Web.
  35. ^ Canadian Wildlife Federation, Groundhog
  36. ^ DNR, Indiana Department of Natural Resources, Groundhog
  37. ^ Line, Les (January 29, 1997). "Woodchucks Are in the Lab, but Their Body Clocks Are Wild". The New York Times.
  38. ^ Discovery Nature Encyclopedia, Groundhog
  39. ^ The Virtual Nature Trail at Penn State New Kensington Species Pages Scientific name: Marmota monax Common name: woodchuck.
  40. ^ Kwiecinski, Gary G. (December 4, 1998). "Marmota monax". Mammalian Species (591): 1–8. doi:10.2307/3504364. JSTOR 3504364.
  41. ^ a b Watson, Elizabeth L. (2010). Effects of urbanization on survival rates, anti-predator behavior, and movements of woodchucks (Marmota monax) (Thesis). University of Illinois. hdl:2142/14642.
  42. ^ Lehrer, E.W.; Schooley, R.L.; Whittington, J.K. (December 14, 2011). "Survival and antipredator behavior of woodchucks ( Marmota monax ) along an urban–agricultural gradient". Canadian Journal of Zoology. 90 (1): 12–21. doi:10.1139/z11-107. ISSN 0008-4301.
  43. ^ "Ecology and Management of the Groundhog (Marmota monax)". Retrieved August 7, 2024.
  44. ^ Woodchucks in Rhode Island Archived April 12, 2007, at the Wayback Machine. (PDF) dem.ri.gov. Retrieved on September 15, 2011.
  45. ^ Zervanos, Stam M.; Maher, Christine R.; Waldvogel, Jerry A.; Florant, Gregory L. (January 2010). "Latitudinal Differences in the Hibernation Characteristics of Woodchucks (Marmota monax )". Physiological and Biochemical Zoology. 83 (1): 135–141. doi:10.1086/648736. ISSN 1522-2152. PMID 19958172.
  46. ^ "Professor sheds light on groundhog's shadowy behavior". berks.psu.edu. January 23, 2014. Archived from the original on June 11, 2021. Retrieved June 11, 2021.
  47. ^ a b Woodchucks in Rhode Island, dem.ri.gov
  48. ^ "Marmota monax - Vertebrate Collection | UWSP". Archived from the original on October 13, 2018. Retrieved October 13, 2018.
  49. ^ Penn State news, January 22, 2014, Professor sheds light on groundhog's shadowy behavior
  50. ^ Groundhog Day facts and factoids, Cornell Chronicle, February 1, 1996
  51. ^ Kwiecinski, Gary G. (1998). "Marmota monax". Mammalian Species (591): 1–8. doi:10.2307/3504364. JSTOR 3504364.
  52. ^ Woodchuck Archived April 21, 2014, at the Wayback Machine, Illinois University
  53. ^ a b Maher, Christine R.; Duron, Melissa (June 16, 2010). "Mating system and paternity in woodchucks (Marmota monax)". Journal of Mammalogy. 91 (3): 628–635. doi:10.1644/09-MAMM-A-324.1. S2CID 56472630.
  54. ^ Woodchuck. Marmota monax. (PDF). North Carolina Wildlife.
  55. ^ Lehrer, E. W.; Schooley, R. L.; Whittington, J. K. (2012). "Survival and antipredator behavior of woodchucks (Marmota monax) along an urban–agricultural gradient". Canadian Journal of Zoology. 90 (1): 12–21. doi:10.1139/z11-107.
  56. ^ Charles A. Long (2008). The Wild Mammals of Wisconsin. Pensoft Publishers. p. 162. ISBN 978-9546423139.
  57. ^ a b Jackson, Hartley H. T. (1961). Mammals of Wisconsin. University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 9780299021504.
  58. ^ a b Barbour, Roger W; Davis, Wayne H (1974). Mammals of Kentucky. University Press of Kentucky. ISBN 0813113148. OL 5047309M.
  59. ^ "Wisconsin's endangered and threatened species laws". Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources. Archived from the original on April 26, 2018. Retrieved April 25, 2018.
  60. ^ "Wisconsin Gov. Walker signs woodchuck hunting bill". Chicago Tribune. November 13, 2017.
  61. ^ Thornton, Kari (July 2008). "The Creature That Keeps Digging" (PDF). OutdoorIllinois Online. Illinois Department of Natural Resources. p. 20. Archived from the original (PDF) on December 27, 2021. Retrieved January 27, 2023.
  62. ^ "Badger Biology (Ontario Badgers)". www.ontariobadgers.org. Archived from the original on July 22, 2019. Retrieved July 22, 2019.
  63. ^ Witmer, G. W.; Pipas, M. J.; Hayden, A. (1995). "Some observations on coyote food habits in Pennsylvania". Journal of the Pennsylvania Academy of Science. 69 (2): 77–80. JSTOR 44149042.
  64. ^ Gipson, P. S. (1974). "Food habits of coyotes in Arkansas". The Journal of Wildlife Management. 38 (4): 848–853. doi:10.2307/3800055. JSTOR 3800055.
  65. ^ Progulske, D. R. (1955). "Game animals utilized as food by the bobcat in the southern Appalachians". The Journal of Wildlife Management. 19 (2): 249–253. doi:10.2307/3796859. JSTOR 3796859.
  66. ^ Rose, C.; Prange, S. (2015). "Diet of the recovering Ohio bobcat (Lynx rufus) with a consideration of two subpopulations". The American Midland Naturalist. 173 (2): 305–318. doi:10.1674/amid-173-02-305-317.1. S2CID 86285187.
  67. ^ Hockman, J. G.; Chapman, J. A. (1983). "Comparative feeding habits of red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and gray foxes (Urocyon cinereoargenteus) in Maryland". American Midland Naturalist. 110 (2): 276–285. doi:10.2307/2425269. JSTOR 2425269.
  68. ^ Charles Fergus; Amelia Hansen (2000). Wildlife of Pennsylvania. Stackpole Books. p. 43. ISBN 978-0811728997.
  69. ^ Voigt, D. R.; Kolenosky, G. B.; Pimlott, D. H. (1976). "Changes in summer foods of wolves in central Ontario". The Journal of Wildlife Management. 40 (4): 663–668. doi:10.2307/3800561. JSTOR 3800561.
  70. ^ Bolgiano, C.; Roberts, J., eds. (2005). The Eastern Cougar: Historic Accounts, Scientific Investigations, and New Evidence. Stackpole Books.
  71. ^ Olendorff, R. R. (1976). "The food habits of North American golden eagles". American Midland Naturalist. 95 (1): 231–236. doi:10.2307/2424254. JSTOR 2424254.
  72. ^ Bent, A. C. (1938). "Life histories of North American birds of prey, Part 2". U.S. National Museum Bulletin. 170: 295–357.
  73. ^ Becker, T. E.; Smith, D. G.; Bosakowski, T. (2006). "Habitat, food habits, and productivity of northern goshawks nesting in Connecticut" (PDF). Studies in Avian Biology. 31: 119–125.
  74. ^ Aschemeier, L. M.; Maher, C. R. (2011). "Eavesdropping of woodchucks (Marmota monax) and eastern chipmunks (Tamias striatus) on heterospecific alarm calls". Journal of Mammalogy. 92 (3): 493–499. doi:10.1644/09-MAMM-A-322.1.
  75. ^ George, W. G. (1974). "Domestic cats as predators and factors in winter shortages of raptor prey". The Wilson Bulletin. 86 (4): 384–396. JSTOR 4160538.
  76. ^ Beer, Amy-Jane; Morris, Pat (2004). Encyclopedia of North American Mammals: An Essential Guide to Mammals of North America. Thunder Bay Press. ISBN 978-1-59223-191-1. OL 9406434M.
  77. ^ Castro, Everett J. (January 1984). "Celebrate Groundhog Day With Groundhog Recipes". Mother Earth News. Archived from the original on December 6, 2018. Retrieved September 14, 2017.
  78. ^ Corning, Charles R. (June 1883). "Report of the Woodchuck Committee". Journals of the Honorable Senate and House of Representatives of the State of New Hampshire. 1883: 1193–1197. Retrieved July 4, 2021.
  79. ^ Newman, Andy (December 1, 2007). "Grooming a Weatherman for his TV Debut, and Hoping He Doesn't Bite The Host". The New York Times. Archived from the original on December 5, 2018. Retrieved February 22, 2017.
  80. ^ "Sean Kirst: For Dunkirk Dave's caretaker, every day is Groundhog Day". The Buffalo News. February 1, 2018. Archived from the original on February 3, 2018. Retrieved February 20, 2018.
  81. ^ The Winchester Star, Christopher Early, "Library holds Groundhog Day celebration", p. 1A, February 6, 2017
  82. ^ Winchester Star, Centerpiece, "Local groundhog predicts 6 more weeks of winter", February 2, 2018, Cathy Kuehner
  83. ^ Elder, Lane (February 2, 2020). "Groundhog Day is steeped in tradition but isn't the most accurate, according to weather almanacs". The Atlanta Journal-Constitution. Archived from the original on April 12, 2020. Retrieved April 11, 2020.
  84. ^ Segelken, Roger (February 1, 1966). "At Cornell, groundhog is harbinger of health". CornellChronicle. Archived from the original on March 8, 2018. Retrieved February 20, 2018.
  85. ^ "Marmota monax (woodchuck)". Animal Diversity Web. Archived from the original on December 4, 2018. Retrieved February 20, 2018.
  86. ^ Penn State News, (January 29, 2009) "Professor studies groundhog hibernation to benefit mankind"
  87. ^ a b Owen, Lorrie K. (ed.) (1999). Dictionary of Ohio Historic Places. Vol. 1. St. Clair Shores: Somerset, p. 328.
  88. ^ Oehlschlaeger, Fritz (December 1982). "Two Woodchucks, or Frost and Thoreau on the Art of the Burrow". Colby Quarterly. 18 (4): 214–219. Archived from the original on January 1, 2020. Retrieved April 1, 2019.

Further reading

[edit]
[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Marmota monax.
Wikispecies has information related to Marmota monax.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Groundhog&oldid=1253861503"